Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany

"The authors boldly demonstrate their capacity to survey both the biological evolution and widely varied human cultures' uses of cannabis. In doing so, they have produced a work that is thorough, globally ambitious, and carefully constructed. The extraordinary power and range of their cross-cultural perspectives are likely to elicit fresh consideration of familiar studies." —Richard Tucker, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan

"Cannabis is one of the best, if not the best history of the extraordinary plant Cannabis sativa that I have read. It is encyclopedic in its scope, painstakingly documented, and well written. A must for libraries, cannabis scholars and the growing number of readers who are interested in this remarkable plant." —Lester Grinspoon, Emeritus Associate Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School and author of Marihuana Reconsidered and Marihuana, the Forbidden Medicine

"This is a unique and valuable work. It aptly summarizes the voluminous literature on cannabis to bring the reader a better understanding of its origins and uses, as well as the relationship with man, its chief employer and manipulator. The authors' experience in the subject makes them uniquely qualified to synthesize and interpret the material in a coherent manner." —Ethan Russo, President of the International Cannabinoid Research Society

Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany is a comprehensive, interdisciplinary exploration of the natural origins and early evolution of this famous plant, highlighting its historic role in the development of human societies. Cannabis has long been prized for the strong and durable fiber in its stalks, its edible and oil-rich seeds, and the psychoactive and medicinal compounds produced by its female flowers. The culturally valuable and often irreplaceable goods derived from cannabis deeply influenced the commercial, medical, ritual, and religious practices of cultures throughout the ages, and human desire for these commodities directed the evolution of the plant toward its contemporary varieties. As interest in cannabis grows and public debate over its many uses rises, this book will help us understand why humanity continues to rely on this plant and adapts it to suit our needs.

Robert C. Clarke is Cannabis researcher and Projects Manager for the International Hemp Association in Amsterdam and the author of Marijuana Botany and Hashish!

Mark D. Merlin is Botany Professor at University of Hawaii at Manoa and author of On the Trail of the Ancient Opium Poppy.

Introduction to the Multipurpose Plant Cannabis

In the beginning: Circumstances of early human contact with Cannabis

A brief summary of the long and diverse history of relationships between Cannabis and humans

What shall we call these plants?

Should we praise or condemn this multipurpose plant?

What we discuss in this book

Chapter 1: Natural Origins and Early Evolution of Cannabis

Introduction

Basic life cycle of Cannabis

Ecological requirements of Cannabis: Sunlight, temperature, water and soil

Cannabis origin and evolution studies

Central Asia: Vavilov and the origins of Cannabis

Cannabis and grapes

Theories for South Asian origin of domesticated Cannabis

Model for the early evolution of Cannabis

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 2: Ethnobotanical Origins, Early Cultivation and Evolution through Human Selection

Introduction

First contacts: Origins of Human-Cannabis relationships

Transitions to cultivation and civilization

Earliest uses of Cannabis: Useful traits for ancient people

Evolution of Cannabis through human selection

Disruptive selection

Origin from weedy populations

Natural hybridization: Introgression vs. isolation

Artificial hybridization

Atavism

Isolation of populations

Population size and changes in variability

Evolutionary effects of dioecy

Effects of human selection on sexual expression for different products - Seeds, fibers, marijuana and hashish

Sexual dimorphism and selection

Phenotypic changes during domestication - Seeds, fibers and inflorescences

Directional evolutionary changes

Cannabinoid profile

Timing of floral maturation

Evolution of cannabinoid phenotypes

Geographical distribution of cannabinoid phenotypes

North America; Western Europe; Eastern Europe; Central America and the Caribbean; South America; Middle East; East Asia; Indian Subcontinent; Southeast Asia; Equatorial Africa; South and East Africa

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 3: Cultural Diffusion of Cannabis

Introduction

Methodology: The multidisciplinary approach

Types of archaeobotanical evidence for Cannabis

Seeds, fibers, pollen, fiber and seed impressions, other carbonized remains, chemical analysis and phytoliths

Written records of Cannabis presence and use

Non-human agencies affecting the geographical range of Cannabis

Human impact on the dispersal and expanding geographical range of Cannabis

Early relationships among humans and Cannabis in Central Asia

Fishing and hemp

Hemp, humans and horses in Eurasia

Scythians and Cannabis

Archaeological and historical evidence for the spread of Cannabis

Diffusion throughout East Asia

Diffusion from northeastern China into Korea and Japan

Diffusion into South Asia

Archaeobotanical evidence from South Asia

Diffusion into Southwest Asia and Egypt

Diffusion into Europe and the Mediterranean

Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Baltic region, Finland, Austria, Czech Republic and Slovakia, Germany, Switzerland, Northern France, Iberian Peninsula, Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, British Isles, and the Mediterranean

Dispersal phases within and beyond Eurasia

Phase One: Primary dispersal across Eurasia – ca. 10,000 to 2000 BP

Phase Two: Spread into Africa and Southeast Asia - ca. 2000 to 500 BP

Phase Three: Migration to the New World - 1545 to 1800

Phase Four: Migration to the New World - 1800 to 1945

Phase Five: Migration after the Second World War - 1945 to 1990

Phase Six: Artificial environments and the proliferation of industrial hemp – 1990 to the present

Summary and conclusions: Cannabis' dispersal from an evolutionary point of view

Chapter 4: History of Cannabis Use for Fiber

Introduction

Textile basics

Historical and archaeological evidence for Cannabis fiber use in China

Hemp in clothing, lacquerware, weapons and ships in ancient China

Traditional Korea

Contemporary South Korea and North Korea

Ancient Japan and hemp

Ancient evidence from South Asia, Southwest Asia and Egypt

The ancient Mediterranean region

Ancient Europe north of the Mediterranean

Hemp fiber use spreads to the New World

Some aspects of the recent history of hemp

Cannabis and paper

Advent and early history of papermaking in China

Hemp paper in ancient Korea and Japan

Dispersal to North Africa and Europe

Hemp paper production in North America

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 5: Food, feed and oil uses of hemp seed

Introduction

Human food and animal feed uses of hemp seeds

Early hemp seed use in China: Neolithic Period through the Han Dynasty

Hemp seed oil in ancient China

Ancient evidence for traditional production and use beyond China

Korea; Japan; South and Southwest Asia; Central and Eastern Europe; Mediterranean and Western European Regions

Present-day hemp seed production and use

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 6: Historical Aspects of Psychoactive Cannabis Use for Ritual and Recreation

Introduction

Discovery of the euphoriant properties of Cannabis in Eurasia.

Central Asia

China

Taoism and tales of Ma Gu

India and Nepal

Was Soma Cannabis?

South Asian psychoactive Cannabis products

Hindu acceptance of ritual bhang use

Shiva worship and Cannabis

Other occasions on which bhang was used

Worship of the bhang plant

Mongols and Cannabis

Southwest Asia, the Mediterranean, Africa and Europe

The advent of Cannabis smoking: Tobacco meets hashish

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 7: Ethnobotanical history and contemporary context of medicinal Cannabis

Introduction

Early East Asian medicinal use

South and Southeast Asian medical traditions

Egyptian medicinal use

Cannabis in early Middle Eastern and later Islamic medicine

Medicinal use in Africa and South America

European medicinal Cannabis

Present-day Western medicinal applications of Cannabis

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 8: Non-psychoactive Ritual Uses of Cannabis

Introduction

Hempen rituals of major religions – Shamanic influences survive repression

Archaeological remains from ritual contexts – Central Asia, China and Europe

The Hmong – Spirit travel in healing, life-cycle and funerary rituals

China – Shamanism, Taoism and Confucianism

Korea – Shamanic funerary rites, Confucian mourning and ancestor worship

Japan – Shamanist, Shinto and Buddhist hemp traditions

Europe and the Middle East – Judaeo-Christian hemp rituals

Hangings

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 9: Recent history of Cannabis Breeding

Introduction

European hemp breeding

North American hemp breeding

Introduction of NLD Cannabis to North America

Breeding history of NLD varieties

Introduction of BLD Cannabis

Recent trends in Cannabis breeding

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 10: Classical and molecular taxonomy of Cannabis

Introduction

One, two or three species?

History of Cannabis taxonomy

Recent advances in Cannabis taxonomy

Genetic and historical model for the evolution of Cannabis biotypes

Recent geographical distributions of Cannabis biotypes

Europe and the former Soviet Union; China; Central Asia, Afghanistan and Turkestan; India and Nepal; Southeast Asia; Africa and the Middle East; and the New World

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 11: Hypotheses Concerning the Early Evolution of Cannabis

Introduction

Prehistoric climate change and plant distribution: Pleistocene and Holocene ranges

Early human migrations

Plant speciation and colonization: Pleistocene refugia, post-glacial population expansion, and speciation rate

Early evolution of Cannabaceae: The hemp and hop family

Breeding systems and reproductive strategies as clues to geographical origin: Angiospermy, annuality, anemophily, dioecy and sex determination

Reconstruction of a Cannabaceae ancestor

Summary and conclusions

Chapter 12: Cannabis and Homo sapiens – Present position and future directions

Introduction

The long term relationship

Summary of Cannabis evolution

Cannabis' influence on the evolution of human culture

A case for social benefits from Cannabis psychoactivity Human influence on Cannabis evolution

Environmental impact of the Human-Cannabis relationship

Coevolution of Cannabis and humans: Fresh concepts

Present position of the Human-Cannabis relationship

Remaining questions and future directions