Synopses & Reviews
The Aims of Argument focuses on the aimsor purposesof argument: to inquire, to convince, to persuade, and to mediate. In contrast to other books' pedagogy, Aims emphasizes rhetorical contexts, helping students become experts in reading, analyzing, and writing arguments.
Table of Contents
Preface Note to Students About the Authors Brief Contents Boxes by Type
PART ONE RESOURCES FOR READING AND WRITING ARGUMENTS
Chapter 1 Understanding Argument
What Is Argument? What Is Rhetoric? An Example of Argument “You Also Have the Right to Tell a Bigot What You Think,” LEONARD PITTS Discussion of “You Also Have the Right…” Pittss Reasoning Other Appeals in Pittss Argument Four Criteria of Mature Reasoning Mature Reasoners Are Well Informed Mature Reasoners Are Self-Critical and Open to Constructive Criticism from Others Mature Reasoners Argue with Their Audiences or Readers in Mind Mature Reasoners Know Their Arguments Contexts What Are the Aims of Argument? Arguing to Inquire Arguing to Convince Arguing to Persuade Arguing to Mediate A Good Tool for Understanding and Writing Arguments: The Writers Notebook Why Keep a Notebook?
Chapter 2 Reading an Argument
The First Encounter: Seeing the Text in Context Considering the Climate of Opinion Considering the Rhetorical Context An Argument for Critical Reading “On Teenagers and Tattoos,” ANDRES MARTIN The Second Encounter: Reading and Analyzing the Text Wrestling with Difficult Passages Unfamiliar Contexts Contrasting Voices and Views Allusions Specialized Vocabulary Missing Persons Passive Voice Using Paraphrase to Aid Comprehension Analyzing the Reasoning of an Argument Reading Martins Essay Finding Parts Using Context Identifying the Claim and Reasons The Third Encounter: Responding Critically to an Argument Annotation Is Key Sample Annotations Writing Assignment: A Critical Response to a Single Argument In Part One In Part Two Other Advice for Both Parts Student Sample Essay: Critical Response to a Single Argument “The Decorated Body,” FRANCE BOREL A Sample Student Response: Analysis of “The Decorated Body,” KATIE LAHEY
Chapter 3 Analyzing Arguments: A Simplified Toulmin Method
A Preliminary Critical Reading “Rising to the Occasion of Our Death,” WILLIAM F. MAY A Step-by-Step Demonstration of the Toulmin Method Analyzing the Claim Identify the Claim Look for Qualifiers Find the Exceptions Summarize the Claim Analyzing the Reasons List the Reasons Examine the Reasons Analyzing the Evidence List the Evidence Examine the Evidence Noting Refutations Summarizing Your Analysis Student Sample: An Argument for Analysis “Capital Punishment: Societys Self-Defense,” AMBER YOUNG A Final Note about Logical Analysis
Chapter 4 Reading and Writing about Visual Arguments
Understanding Visual Arguments “Reading” Images Analysis: Five Common Types of Visual Argument Advertisements Editorial Cartoons Public Sculpture News Photographs Graphics *“The Rise of Renewable Energy,” DANIEL M. KAMMEN Understanding Kammens Graphics Writing Assignments Assignment 1: Analyzing an Advertisement or Editorial Cartoon Student Sample: Analysis of Visual Rhetoric, “A Mothers Treat,” KELLY WILLIAMS Assignment 2: Analyzing and Creating Posters or Flyers Assignment 3: Using Visual Rhetoric to Promote Your School Assignment 4: Analyzing Your Own Visual Rhetoric Assignment 5: Writing to Convince Assignment 6: Using Graphics to Supplement Your Own Writing or Other Texts Assignment 7: Presenting Information Using PowerPoint
Chapter 5 Writing Research-Based Arguments
Finding an Issue Understand the Difference between a Topic and an Issue Find Issues in the News and Commentary on the News The Internet Magazines and Newspapers Lectures, Panel Discussions, Class Discussions, Conversations Personal Observations Student Example: Finding an Issue on the Topic of Global Warming Finding Sources Keep a Research Log Make Complete Photocopies and Printouts Field Research Observations Questionnaires and Surveys Interviews Library and Internet Research Kinds of Sources Books Periodicals Newspapers Audio-Visual Materials Websites Blogs, Listservs, Usenet Groups, Message Boards Choose the Best Search Terms Use Phrase Searching Start with General Words Think of Synonyms Use Unique or Specific Words and Phrases Use Boolean Searching Searching Your Library Your Librarys Online Catalogue Finding Reference Books through Your Schools Library Your Librarys Online Resources (the Deep Web) Licensed Databases Examples of Searching Licensed Databases Internet Research Domains Commercial (.com) Nonprofit Organizations (.org) Educational Institutions (.edu) Government Agencies (.gov) Advanced Features for Searching the Web Advanced Searches Google Specialized Searches Google Book Google Scholar Subject Directories to the Web Other Web Resources: Blogs, Listservs, Message Boards, and Chat Groups Evaluating Sources Eliminate Inappropriate Sources Carefully Record Complete Bibliographic Information Read the Source Critically Who Is the Writer, and What Is His or Her Bias? How Reliable Is the Source When Was This Source Written? Where Did This Source Appear? Why Was the Book or Article Written? What Is the Authors Aim? How Is the Source Organized? Special Help with Evaluating Websites Using Sources *“Battling Teardowns, Saving Neighborhoods,” RICHARD MOE Ways of “Writing-in-the-Middle” to Gain Mastery over Your Sources 1. Annotate the Source 2. Respond to the Source in Your Notebook 3. Paraphrase Important Ideas from the Source Examples of Adequate and Inadequate Paraphrasing 4. Write Summaries of Portions of a Source 5. Write Capsule Summaries of Entire Sources 6. Dialogue about Sources Incorporating and Documenting Source Material Instructions for Using MLA and APA Styles for In-Text Citations MLA Style APA Style Direct Quotations MLA Style APA Style Altering Direct Quotations with Ellipses and Square Brackets Using Block Quotations MLA Style APA Style In-Text References to Electronic Sources Creating Works Cited and Reference Lists Books Books by One Author Book by Two or Three Authors Book by Four or More Authors Book Prepared by an Editor or Editors Work in an Edited Collection Translated Book Periodicals Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue Article in a Magazine Anonymous Article in a Newspaper Nonprint Sources Interview Sound Recording Film Electronic Sources MLA Style: Citing Internet Sources APA Style: Citing Internet Sources Online Book World Wide Website Document 0on a Website Article in an Electronic Journal Encyclopedia Article on CD-ROM Encyclopedia Article Online E-Mail, Listserv, and Newsgroup Citations *Student Example: “Why Residential Construction Needs to Get a Conscience,” JULIE ROSS
Chapter 6 Ethical Writing and Plagiarism
Why Ethics Matter What Plagiarism Is The Ethics of Using Sources When Opinions Coincide The Ethics of Giving and Receiving Help with Your Writing Ethical Writing and Good Study Habits Works Cited
PART TWO THE AIMS OF ARGUMENT
Chapter 7 Looking for Some Truth: Arguing to Inquire
Inquiry and Interpretation in Academic Writing The Writing Project: Part 1 Step 1: Choosing a Topic for Inquiry Step 2: Finding an Issue Step 3: Stating Your Initial Opinions Student Sample: Exploratory Essay, Part 1Laurens Initial Opinions Step 4: Exploring an Issue Conversation and Dialogue in Inquiry An Example Conversation “Moving beyond the Blame Game,” JONATHAN ALTER, MODERATOR Analysis of “Moving beyond the Blame Game Step 5: Engaging in a Dialogue about Your Initial Opinions Student Sample: Example Dialogue for AnalysisMatts Initial Opinions Student Sample: Example Dialogue between Matt and Lauren Step 6: Engaging in Dialogue with a Reading Example Dialogue with a Reading “Hollow Claims about Fantasy Violence,” RICHARD RHODES A Dialogue with Rhodes Following Through Another Example of Dialogue with a Reading “Media Literacy,” SISSELA BOK Possibilities for Dialogue with “Media Literacy” Inquiry Again: Digging Deeper When Experts Disagree An Example of Experts Disagreeing “Violence in the Mass Media and Violence in Society: The Link Is Unproven,” JONATHAN L. FREEDMAN “Media Violence: A Demonstrated Public Health Threat to Children,” L. ROWELL HUESMANN AND JESSICA MOISE Commentary on the Experts Disagreement The Writing Project: Part 2 The Writing Project: Part 3 After Drafting Your Essay Student Sample: An Exploratory Essay Inquiry: Summing Up the Aim
Chapter 8 Making Your Case: Arguing to Convince
The Nature of Convincing: Structure and Strategy Case Structure Case Strategy Thinking about Audience Formulating the Thesis Choosing Reasons “Arrested Development: The Conservative Case against Racial Profiling,” JAMES FORMAN, JR. Arranging Reasons Using Evidence Introducing and Concluding the Argument The Introduction The Conclusion Writing a Convincing Argument Preparing a Brief Working toward a Position Student Sample: Working toward a Position Analyzing the Audience Student Sample: Analyzing the Audience Developing a Thesis Student Sample: Developing a Thesis Analyzing the Thesis Student Sample: Analyzing the Thesis Finding Reasons The Audiences Belief System Special Rules or Principles Expert Opinions and Hard Evidence Tradition Comparison The Probable or Likely Cause and Effect Definition Student Sample: Finding Reasons Selecting and Ordering Reasons Student Sample: Selecting and Ordering Reasons Using Evidence What Counts as Evidence? What Kind of Evidence Is Best? How Much Evidence Is Needed? Student Sample: Using Evidence From Brief to Draft The Introduction Student Sample: The Introduction The Body: Presenting Reasons and Evidence Student Sample: Presenting Reasons and Evidence The Conclusion Student Sample: The Conclusion Revising the Draft Reading Your Own Writing Critically Read for Structure Read for Rhetorical Context Inquire into Your Own Writing Getting Feedback from Other Readers Editing and Proofreading Student Sample: An Essay Arguing to Convince, “Who Should Have the Right to Marry?” JUSTIN SPIDEL
Chapter 9 Motivating Action: Arguing to Persuade
When to Convince and When to Persuade: A Matter of Emphasis Analyzing Your readers Who Is the Audience, and How Do They View the Topic? Reading a Persuasive Essay Background “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. Kings Analysis of His Audience: Identification and Overcoming Difference Assumptions Principles Hierarchy of Values Ends and Means Interpretation Implications or Consequences Using the Forms of Appeal The Appeal to Reason The Appeal to Character The Appeal to Emotion The Appeal through Style Drafting a Persuasive Essay Conceiving Need Conceiving a Readership Need and Audience, a Student Example Discovering the Resources of Appeal Student Sample: Baxleys Brief Appealing through Character Appealing to Emotion Strategies of Appeal in “Be a Parent” Appealing through Style *Student Sample: “Be a Parent, Not a Friend,” ELISABETH BAXLEY
Chapter 10 Resolving Conflict: Arguing to Mediate
Mediation and the Other Aims of Argument The Process of Mediation Mediation and Rogerian Argument A Conflict to Mediate Understanding the Positions “Institutionalizing Our Demise: America vs. Multiculturalism,” ROGER KIMBALL “Reinventing ‘America: Call for a New National Identity,” ELIZABETH MARTINEZ Analysis of the Writers Positions Kimballs Position Martinezs Position Locating the Areas of Agreement and Disagreement Differences over Facts Differences over Interests, Values, and Interpretations Is the Difference a Matter of Assumptions? Is the Difference a Matter of Principle? Is the Difference a Matter of Values or Priorities? Is the Difference aMatter of Ends or Means? Is the Difference a Matter of Implications or Consequences? Is the Difference a Matter of Interpretation? Is the Difference a Matter of Personal Background, Basic Human Needs, or Emotions? Finding Creative Solutions: Exploring Common Ground Exploring Common Ground in the Debate over National Identity The Mediatory Essay “Beyond Multiculturalism,” BHARATI MUKHERJEE Analyzing Mukherjees Essay Ethos: Earning the Respect of Both Sides Pathos: Using Emotion to Appeal to Both Sides Logos: Integrating the Values of Both Sides Writing a Mediatory Essay Prewriting Drafting Revising Student Sample: An Essay Arguing to Mediate
Appendix A A Short Guide to Editing and Proofreading Appendix B Fallaciesand Critical Thinking Glossary Credits Index