About the Author xv
Foreword xvii
Series Preface xix
Preface to the Second Edition xxi
Preface to the First Edition xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Definition and History of Tribology 1
1.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 3
1.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 4
1.4 Organization of the Book 6
References 7
2 Solid Surface Characterization 9
2.1 The Nature of Surfaces 9
2.2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers 10
2.2.1 Deformed Layer 10
2.2.2 Chemically Reacted Layer 11
2.2.3 Physisorbed Layer 12
2.2.4 Chemisorbed Layer 13
2.2.5 Methods of Characterization of Surface Layers 13
2.3 Analysis of Surface Roughness 14
2.3.1 Average Roughness Parameters 16
2.3.2 Statistical Analyses 23
2.3.3 Fractal Characterization 45
2.3.4 Practical Considerations in Measurement of Roughness Parameters 47
2.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 51
2.4.1 Mechanical Stylus Method 52
2.4.2 Optical Methods 56
2.4.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Methods 67
2.4.4 Fluid Methods 76
2.4.5 Electrical Method 77
2.4.6 Electron Microscopy Methods 77
2.4.7 Analysis of Measured Height Distribution 78
2.4.8 Comparison of Measurement Methods 78
2.5 Closure 84
Problems 85
References 86
Further Reading 88
3 Contact Between Solid Surfaces 91
3.1 Introduction 91
3.2 Analysis of the Contacts 92
3.2.1 Single Asperity Contact of Homogeneous and Frictionless Solids 92
3.2.2 Single Asperity Contact of Layered Solids in Frictionless and Frictional Contacts 105
3.2.3 Multiple Asperity Dry Contacts 117
3.3 Measurement of the Real Area of Contact 146
3.3.1 Measurement Techniques 146
3.3.2 Typical Measurements 147
3.4 Closure 150
Problems 152
References 153
Further Reading 155
4 Adhesion 157
4.1 Introduction 157
4.2 Solid–Solid Contact 158
4.2.1 Covalent Bond 161
4.2.2 Ionic or Electrostatic Bond 161
4.2.3 Metallic Bond 162
4.2.4 Hydrogen Bond 164
4.2.5 van der Waals Bond 164
4.2.6 Free Surface Energy Theory of Adhesion 164
4.2.7 Polymer Adhesion 171
4.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 172
4.3.1 Idealized Geometries 173
4.3.2 Multiple-Asperity Contacts 186
4.4 Closure 194
Problems 195
References 195
Further Reading 197
5 Friction 199
5.1 Introduction 199
5.2 Solid–Solid Contact 201
5.2.1 Rules of Sliding Friction 201
5.2.2 Basic Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 206
5.2.3 Other Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 222
5.2.4 Friction Transitions During Sliding 224
5.2.5 Static Friction 226
5.2.6 Stick-Slip 228
5.2.7 Rolling Friction 232
5.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 236
5.4 Friction of Materials 239
5.4.1 Friction of Metals and Alloys 240
5.4.2 Friction of Ceramics 244
5.4.3 Friction of Polymers 248
5.4.4 Friction of Solid Lubricants 254
5.5 Closure 264
Problems 266
References 267
Further Reading 271
6 Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces 273
6.1 Introduction 273
6.2 Thermal Analysis 274
6.2.1 Fundamental Heat Conduction Solutions 275
6.2.2 High Contact-Stress Condition (Ar/Aa ∼ 1) (Individual Contact) 276
6.2.3 Low Contact-Stress Condition (Ar/Aa 1) (Multiple Asperity Contact) 284
6.3 Interface Temperature Measurements 298
6.3.1 Thermocouple and Thin-Film Temperature Sensors 298
6.3.2 Radiation Detection Techniques 302
6.3.3 Metallographic Techniques 308
6.3.4 Liquid Crystals 308
6.4 Closure 309
Problems 311
References 312
7 Wear 315
7.1 Introduction 315
7.2 Types of Wear Mechanism 316
7.2.1 Adhesive Wear 316
7.2.2 Abrasive Wear (by Plastic Deformation and Fracture) 328
7.2.3 Fatigue Wear 342
7.2.4 Impact Wear 349
7.2.5 Chemical (Corrosive) Wear 359
7.2.6 Electrical-Arc-Induced Wear 361
7.2.7 Fretting and Fretting Corrosion 363
7.3 Types of Particles Present in Wear Debris 365
7.3.1 Plate-Shaped Particles 365
7.3.2 Ribbon-Shaped Particles 366
7.3.3 Spherical Particles 367
7.3.4 Irregularly Shaped Particles 367
7.4 Wear of Materials 369
7.4.1 Wear of Metals and Alloys 371
7.4.2 Wear of Ceramics 376
7.4.3 Wear of Polymers 383
7.5 Closure 388
Problems 391
References 392
Further Reading 396
8 Fluid Film Lubrication 399
8.1 Introduction 399
8.2 Regimes of Fluid Film Lubrication 400
8.2.1 Hydrostatic Lubrication 401
8.2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 401
8.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 402
8.2.4 Mixed Lubrication 403
8.2.5 Boundary Lubrication 403
8.3 Viscous Flow and Reynolds Equation 404
8.3.1 Viscosity and Newtonian Fluids 404
8.3.2 Fluid Flow 409
8.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 418
8.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 428
8.5.1 Thrust Bearings 430
8.5.2 Journal Bearings 443
8.5.3 Squeeze Film Bearings 462
8.5.4 Gas-Lubricated Bearings 465
8.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 481
8.6.1 Forms of Contacts 482
8.6.2 Line Contact 483
8.6.3 Point Contact 490
8.6.4 Thermal Correction 491
8.6.5 Lubricant Rheology 491
8.7 Closure 493
Problems 495
References 497
Further Reading 499
9 Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants 501
9.1 Introduction 501
9.2 Boundary Lubrication 501
9.2.1 Effect of Adsorbed Gases 505
9.2.2 Effect of Monolayers and Multilayers 505
9.2.3 Effect of Chemical Films 508
9.2.4 Effect of Chain Length (or Molecular Weight) 510
9.3 Liquid Lubricants 511
9.3.1 Principal Classes of Lubricants 511
9.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lubricants 517
9.3.3 Additives 517
9.4 Greases 520
9.5 Closure 521
References 521
Further Reading 522
10 Nanotribology 525
10.1 Introduction 525
10.2 SFA Studies 527
10.2.1 Description of an SFA 528
10.2.2 Static (Equilibrium), Dynamic and Shear Properties of Molecularly Thin Liquid Films 530
10.3 AFM/FFM Studies 538
10.3.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 539
10.3.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion 547
10.3.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining 566
10.3.4 Indentation 577
10.3.5 Boundary Lubrication 583
10.4 Atomic-Scale Computer Simulations 598
10.4.1 Interatomic Forces and Equations of Motion 598
10.4.2 Interfacial Solid Junctions 599
10.4.3 Interfacial Liquid Junctions and Confined Films 601
10.5 Closure 602
References 606
Further Reading 612
11 Friction and Wear Screening Test Methods 615
11.1 Introduction 615
11.2 Design Methodology 615
11.2.1 Simulation 616
11.2.2 Acceleration 616
11.2.3 Specimen Preparation 616
11.2.4 Friction and Wear Measurements 617
11.3 Typical Test Geometries 619
11.3.1 Sliding Friction and Wear Tests 619
11.3.2 Abrasion Tests 623
11.3.3 Rolling-Contact Fatigue Tests 625
11.3.4 Solid-Particle Erosion Test 625
11.3.5 Corrosion Tests 626
11.4 Closure 628
References 628
Further Reading 629
12 Tribological Components and Applications 631
12.1 Introduction 631
12.2 Common Tribological Components 631
12.2.1 Sliding-Contact Bearings 631
12.2.2 Rolling-Contact Bearings 633
12.2.3 Seals 635
12.2.4 Gears 637
12.2.5 Cams and Tappets 640
12.2.6 Piston Rings 641
12.2.7 Electrical Brushes 643
12.3 MEMS/NEMS 644
12.3.1 MEMS 647
12.3.2 NEMS 653
12.3.3 BioMEMS 654
12.3.4 Microfabrication Processes 655
12.4 Material Processing 656
12.4.1 Cutting Tools 656
12.4.2 Grinding and Lapping 660
12.4.3 Forming Processes 661
12.4.4 Cutting Fluids 661
12.5 Industrial Applications 662
12.5.1 Automotive Engines 663
12.5.2 Gas Turbine Engines 664
12.5.3 Railroads 668
12.5.4 Magnetic Storage Devices 669
12.6 Closure 676
References 676
Further Reading 680
13 Green Tribology and Biomimetics 683
13.1 Introduction 683
13.2 Green Tribology 683
13.2.1 Twelve Principles of Green Tribology 684
13.2.2 Areas of Green Tribology 685
13.3 Biomimetics 689
13.3.1 Lessons from Nature 690
13.3.2 Industrial Significance 693
13.4 Closure 693
References 694
Further Reading 696
AppendixA Units, Conversions, and Useful Relations 697
A.1 Fundamental Constants 697
A.2 Conversion of Units 698
A.3 Useful Relations 698
Index 701