1 What Is Personality Psychology?
DEFINING PERSONALITY
Why Use Personality as a Concept?
A Working Definition
Two Fundamental Themes in Personality Psychology
THEORY IN PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
What Do Theories Do?
Evaluating Theories: The Role of Research
What Else Makes a Theory Good?
PERSPECTIVES ON PERSONALITY
Perspectives To Be Examined Here
Perspectives Reconsidered
ORGANIZATION WITHIN CHAPTERS
Assessment
Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change
2 Methods in the Study of Personality
GATHERING INFORMATION
Sources: Observe Yourself and Observe Others
Seeking Depth: Case Studies
Depth from Experience Sampling
Seeking Generality: Studies of Many People
ESTABLISHING RELATIONSHIPS AMONG VARIABLES
Correlation between Variables
Two Kinds of Significance
Causality and a Limitation on Inference
Search for Causality: Experimental Research
Recognizing Types of Study
What Kind of Research Is Best?
Multifactor Studies
Reading Figures from Multifactor Research
3 Issues in Personality Assessment
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Observer Ratings
Self-Reports
Implicit Assessment
Subjective versus Objective Measures
RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT
Internal Consistency
Inter-Rater Reliability
Stability across Time
VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT
Construct Validity
Criterion Validity
Convergent Validity
Discriminant Validity
Face Validity
Culture and Validity
Response Sets and Loss of Validity
TWO RATIONALES BEHIND THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASSESSMENT DEVICES
Rational, or Theoretical, Approach
Empirical Approaches
BETTER ASSESSMENT: A NEVER-ENDING SEARCH
4 The Trait Perspective
TYPES AND TRAITS
Nomothetic and Idiographic Views of Traits
WHAT TRAITS MATTER?
A Key Tool: Factor Analysis
Let Reality Reveal Itself
Start from a Theory
Another Theoretical Starting Point: The Interpersonal Circle
THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL: THE BASIC DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY?
What Are the Five Factors?
REFLECTIONS OF THE FIVE FACTORS IN BEHAVIOR
Social Traits: Extraversion and Agreeableness
Conscientiousness, Openness, and Neuroticism
RELATIONS TO EARLIER TRAIT MODELS
OTHER VARIATIONS
Expanding and Condensing the Five-Factor Model
Are Superordinate Traits the Best Level to Use?
TRAITS, SITUATIONS, AND INTERACTIONISM
Is Behavior Actually Traitlike?
Situationism
Interactionism
Other Aspects of Interactionism
Was the Problem Ever Really as Bad as It Seemed?
INTERACTIONISM BECOMES A NEW TRAIT VIEW: CONTEXT-DEPENDENT EXPRESSION OF PERSONALITY
Fitting the Pieces Together: Views of Traits and Behavior
ASSESSMENT
Comparing Individuals: Personality Profiles
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
The Five-Factor Model and Personality Disorders
Interactionism in Behavior Problems
Behavior Change
TRAIT PSYCHOLOGY: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
5 The Motive Perspective
BASIC THEORETICAL ELEMENTS
Needs
Motives
Press
NEEDS, MOTIVES, AND PERSONALITY
Motive States and Motive Dispositions
Measuring Motives: The Thematic Apperception Test or Picture Story Exercise
STUDIES OF SPECIFIC DISPOSITIONAL MOTIVES
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Need for Affiliation
Need for Intimacy
Patterned Needs: Inhibited Power Motive
IMPLICIT AND SELF-ATTRIBUTED MOTIVES
Incentive Value
Implicit Motives Are Different From Self-Attributed Motives
APPROACH AND AVOIDANCE MOTIVES
Approach and Avoidance in Other Motives
MOTIVES AND THE FIVE FACTOR TRAIT MODEL
Traits and Motives as Distinct and Complementary
PERSONOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF NARRATIVES
ASSESSMENT
Other Implicit Assessments
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
The Need for Power and Alcohol Abuse
Focusing On and Changing Motivation
MOTIVE THEORIES: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
6 Genetics, Evolution, and Personality
DETERMINING GENETIC INFLUENCE ON PERSONALITY
Twin Study Method
Adoption Research
WHAT PERSONALITY QUALITIES ARE GENETICALLY INFLUENCED?
Temperaments: Activity, Sociability, and Emotionality
More Recent Views of Temperaments
Inheritance of Traits
Temperaments and the Five-Factor Model
Genetics of Other Qualities: How Distinct Are They?
Environmental Influences
NEW APPROACHES TO GENETICS AND PERSONALITY
Molecular Genetics and New Sources of Evidence
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Correlations Between Genetic and Environmental Influences
Gene by Environment Interactions
Molecular Genetics
EVOLUTION AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology
Genetic Similarity and Attraction
Mate Selection and Competition for Mates
Mate Retention and Other Issues
Aggression and the Young Male Syndrome
ASSESSMENT
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder
Substance Use and Antisocial Behavior
Evolution and Problems in Behavior
Behavior Change: How Much Is Possible?
GENETICS AND EVOLUTION: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
7 Biological Processes and Personality
EARLY IDEAS: EYSENCK’S VIEWS ON BRAIN FUNCTIONS
INCENTIVE APPROACH SYSTEM
Behavioral Approach
More Issues in Approach
Neurotransmitters and the Approach System
BEHAVIORAL AVOIDANCE, OR WITHDRAWAL, SYSTEM
Neurotransmitters and the Avoidance System
RELATING APPROACH AND AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS TO TRAITS OR TEMPERAMENTS
The Role of Sociability
The Role of Impulsivity
A THIRD DIMENSION: SENSATION SEEKING, CONSTRAINT, AND EFFORTFUL CONTROL
Sensation Seeking
Relating Sensation Seeking to Traits and Temperaments
Two Sources of Impulse and Restraint
Neurotransmitters and Impulse versus Constraint
HORMONES AND PERSONALITY
Hormones, the Body, and the Brain
Early Hormonal Exposure and Behavior
Testosterone and Adult Personality
Cycle of Testosterone and Action
Testosterone, Dominance, and Evolutionary Psychology
Responding to Stress: Men, Women, and Oxytocin
ASSESSMENT
Electroencephalograms
Neuroimaging
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Biological Bases of Anxiety and Depression
Biological Bases of Antisocial Personality
Medication in Therapy
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND PERSONALITY: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
8 The Psychoanalytic Perspective
BASIC THEMES
THE TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL OF MIND
ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY: THE STRUCTURAL MODEL
Id
Ego
Superego
Balancing the Forces
MOTIVATION: THE DRIVES OF PERSONALITY
Two Classes of Drives: Life and Death Instincts
Catharsis
ANXIETY AND MECHANISMS OF DEFENSE
Repression
Denial
Projection
Rationalization and Intellectualization
Displacement and Sublimation
Research on Defenses
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
The Oral Stage
The Anal Stage
The Phallic Stage
The Latency Period
The Genital Stage
EXPOSING THE UNCONSCIOUS
The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
Dreams
ASSESSMENT: PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Origins of Problems
Behavior Change
Does Psychoanalytic Therapy Work?
THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
9 Psychosocial Theories
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORIES
Self Psychology
ATTACHMENT THEORY AND PERSONALITY
Attachment Patterns in Adults
How Many Patterns?
Stability and Specificity
Other Reflections of Adult Attachment
Attachment Patterns and the Five-Factor Model
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Ego Identity, Competence, and the Experience of Crisis
Infancy
Early Childhood
Preschool
School Age
Adolescence
Young Adulthood
Adulthood
Old Age
The Epigenetic Principle
Identity as Life Story
Linking Erikson’s Theory to Other Psychosocial Theories
ASSESSMENT
Object Relations, Attachment, and the Focus of Assessment
Play in Assessment
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Narcissism as a Disorder of Personality
Attachment and Depression
Behavior Change
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
10 The Learning Perspective
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Basic Elements
Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Classical Conditioning
Emotional Conditioning
INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
The Law of Effect
Reinforcement and Punishment
Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Instrumental Conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement of Qualities of Behavior
SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE VARIATONS
Social Reinforcement
Vicarious Emotional Arousal
Vicarious Reinforcement
What Is Reinforcement?
Rule-Based Learning
Efficacy Expectancies
Role of Awareness
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Attention and Retention
Production
Acquisition versus Performance
MODELING OF AGGRESSION AND THE ISSUE OF MEDIA VIOLENCE
ASSESSMENT
Conditioning-based Approaches
Social-Cognitive Approaches
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses
Conditioning and Context
Social-Cognitive Approaches
Modeling-Based Therapy for Skill Deficits
Modeling and Responses to Fear
Therapeutic Changes in Efficacy Expectancy
THE LEARNING PERSPECTIVE: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
11 Self-Actualization and Self-Determination
SELF-ACTUALIZATION
The Need for Positive Regard
Contingent Self-Worth
SELF-DETERMINATION
Introjection and Identification
Need for Relatedness
Self-Concordance
Free Will
THE SELF AND PROCESSES OF DEFENSE
Incongruity, Disorganization, and Defense
Self-Esteem Maintenance and Enhancement
Self-Handicapping
Stereotype Threat
SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES
Characteristics of Frequent Self-Actualizers
Peak Experiences
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY: BEING AND DEATH
The Existential Dilemma
Emptiness
Terror Management
ASSESSMENT
Interviews in Assessment
Measuring the Self-Concept by Q-Sort
Measuring Self-Actualization
Measuring elf-Determination and Control
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Client-Centered Therapy
Beyond Therapy to Personal Growth
SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
12 The Cognitive Perspective
REPRESENTING YOUR EXPERIENCE OF THE WORLD
Schemas and Their Development
Effects of Schemas
Semantic Memory, Episodic Memory, Scripts, and Procedural Knowledge
Socially Relevant Schemas
Self-Schemas
Entity versus Incremental Schemas
Attribution
ACTIVATION OF MEMORIES
Priming and the Use of Information
Nonconscious Influences on Behavior
CONNECTIONIST VIEWS OF MENTAL ORGANIZATION
Dual-Process Models
Explicit and Implicit Knowledge
BROADER VIEWS ON COGNITION AND PERSONALITY
Cognitive Person Variables
Personality as a Cognitive—Affective Processing System
ASSESSMENT
Think-Aloud, Experience Sampling, and Self-Monitoring
Contextualized Assessment
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Information-Processing Deficits
Depressive Self-Schemas
Cognitive Therapy
THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
13 The Self-Regulation Perspective
FROM COGNITION TO BEHAVIOR
Intentions
Goals
Goal Setting
Implementation Intentions and the Importance of Strategies
Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets
SELF-REGULATION AND FEEDBACK CONTROL
Feedback Control
Self-Directed Attention and the Action of the Comparator
Hierarchical Organization
Issues Concerning Hierarchical Organization
Evidence of Hierarchical Organization
Construal Levels
Emotions
Effects of Expectancies: Effort versus Disengagement
Partial Disengagement
FURTHER THEMES IN SELF-REGULATION
Approach and Avoidance
Intention-Based and Stimulus-Based Action
Self-Regulation As Self-Control
ASSESSMENT
Assessment of Self-Regulatory Qualities
Assessment of Goals
PROBLEMS IN BEHAVIOR, AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Problems as Conflicts among Goals and Lack of Strategy Specifications
Problems from an Inability to Disengage
Self-Regulation and the Process of Therapy
Therapy Is Training in Problem Solving
THE SELF-REGULATION PERSPECTIVE: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
14 Personality in Perspective: Overlap and Integration
SIMILARITIES AMONG PERSPECTIVES
Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology: the Structural Model
Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology: Fixations and Mating Patterns
Psychoanalysis and Self-Regulation: Hierarchy and the Structural Model
Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Processes
Social Learning, Cognitive, and Self-Regulation Views
Neoanalytic and Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspectives
Maslow’s Hierarchy and Hierarchies of Self-Regulation
Self-Actualization and Self-Regulation
Traits and Their Equivalents in Other Models
RECURRENT THEMES, VIEWED FROM DIFFERENT ANGLES
Impulse and Restraint
Individual versus Group Needs
COMBINING PERSPECTIVES
Eclecticism
An Example: Biology and Learning as Complementary Influences on Personality
WHICH THEORY IS BEST?