1. Process Dynamics, Reactions, and Reactors
W. J. Weber, Jr., and R. P. Canale
Process Dynamics
Transport and Reaction Processes
Material Balance Relationships
Mechanics of Mass Transport
Transport Processes
Diffusive Mass Transport
Convective Mass Transport
Reactions and Energetics
Equilibrium and Energetics
Free Energy
The Equilibrium Constant
Stoichiometry
Kinetics and Reaction Rates
Mass Law Relationships
Reaction Orders
Treatment of Rate Data
Limitations of Mass Law Relationships
Application of the First-Order Equation
Retardant and Autocatalytic First-Order Reactions
Consecutive Reactions
Parallel Reactions
Reversible Reactions
Enzyme Reactions
Temperature and the Activation Energy
Catalysis
Homogeneous Catalysis
Heterogeneous Catalysis
Reactor Engineering and Process Design
Completely Mixed Batch Reactors
Completely Mixed Flow Reactors
CMF Reactors in Series
Determination of Rate Parameters in CMF Reactors
Plug-Flow Reactors
Plug Flow with Dispersion
Problems
References
2. Coagulation and Flocculation
C. R. OMelia
Coagulation Processes
Coagulation and Flocculation
The Stability of Colloids
Repulsive and Attractive Potentials Solvation
Destabilization of Colloids
Double-layer Compression
Adsorption and Charge Neutralization
Enmeshment in a Precipitate
Adsorption and Interparticle Bridging
Destabilization in Water and Wastewater Treatment
Destabilization by Al (III) and Fe (III)
Synthetic Organic Polymers
Activated Silica
Bioflocculation
Selection of a Coagulant
Rapid Mix Units
Transport of Colloidal Particles
Perikinetic Flocculation
Orthokinetic Flocculation
Equations for Determining the Mean Velocity Gradient
Particle Transport in Water and Wastewater Treatment
Flocculation Units
Summary
Problems
References
3. Sedimentation
R. P. Canale and J. A. Borchardt
Sedimentation Processes
Class-1 Clarification
Class-2 Clarification
Zone Settling
Compression
Short-Circuiting and Dispersion Patterns
Sedimentation Tank Design
Design Functions
Clarifier Configuration
Tube Settlers
Inlet and Outlet Structures
Safety Factors
Problems
References
4. Filtration
J. L. Cleasby
Filtration Processes
Filtration Media
Principal Mechanisms of Filtration
Hydraulics of Flow Through Porous Media,
Head Loss Development in a Gravity Filter,
Water Pretreatment
Rate Control Patterns and Methods
Constant-Pressure Filtration,
Constant-Rate Filtration,
Declining-Rate Filtration
Head Loss Patterns at Constant Rate
Filter Effluent Quality Patterns
Precoat Filters
Deep Granular Filters
Mathematical Models for Deep Granular Filters
Specific Surface Model for Spherical Particles
Specific Surface Model for Cylindrical Capillaries
Interstitial Velocity
Slow Sand Filtration
Slow Sand Filter Operation
Performance of Slow Sand Filters
Rapid Sand Filtration
Rate of Filtration
Recent Trends in Rapid Sand Filtration
Details of a Gravity Filter
Details of a Pressure Rapid Sand Filter
Design and Operating Variables for Deep Granular Filters
Filter Media
Backwashing of Filters
Fluidization and Bed Expansion in Backwashing
Auxiliary Agitation during Backwashing
Underdrainage Systems
Underdrain Design
Wash Water Gutter Design
Operational Problems
Precoat Filtration
The Filter Cycle
Types of Filters
Mathematical Model for Precoat Filtration
Optimum Operating Conditions
Problems
References
5. Adsorption
W. J. Weber, Jr.
Adsorption Processes
The Relationship Between Surface Tension and Adsorption
Causes and Types of Adsorption
Adsorption Equilibria and the Adsorption Isotherm
The Langmuir and BET Equations
The Freundlich Equation
Rates of Adsorption
The Rate-Limiting Step
Sorption Kinetics in Batch Reactors
Conservation of Diffusing Mass Equation
Sorption Kinetics in Continuous-Flow Reactors
Material-Balance Relationships
Method of Second-Order Kinetics
Mechanism and Rate of Molecular Transfer
Surface Reaction
External Diffusion
Internal Diffusion
Combined External and Internal Diffusion
Factors Influencing Adsorption
Surface Area
Nature of the Adsorbate
pH
Temperature
Adsorption of Mixed Solutes
Nature of the Adsorbent
Contacting Systems and Modes of Operation
Batch and Continuous-Flow Systems
The Breakthrough Curve
Design of a Fixed-Bed Adsorber
Problems
References
6. Ion Exchange
W. J. Weber, Jr.
Exchange Processes
Exchange Materials
Synthetic Exchange Resins
Methods of Preparation
Exchange Reactions
Equilibria
Exchange Isotherms
Ion Selectivity
Kinetics of Exchange
Methods of Operation
Column Design Procedure
Applications
Water Softening
Water Demineralization
Industrial Waste Treatment
Municipal Waste Treatment
Exchanger Systems
Equipment and Operation Details
Economic Considerations
Testing of Resins
Problems
References
7. Membrane Processes
J. E. Cruver
Separation Processes
Reverse Osmosis
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Water and Solute Diffusion
Properties of Cellulose Acetate Membranes
Feed Temperature and pH
Solute Rejection
Other Membrane Systems
Boundary Layer
System Design
Pretreatment and Flux Maintenance
Applications
Economics
Ultrafiltration
Mathematical Relationships
Membrane Properties
Concentration Polarization
Design
Applications
Electrodialysis
Minimum Energy Requirements
Selective Ion Transport
Membrane Properties and Preparation
Concentration Polarization
Power and Energy Requirements
Current Efficiency
Voltage
Design
Calculation Method
Cell and Stack Configuration
Applications
Economics
Problems
References
8. Chemical Oxidation
H. S. Posselt and W. J. Weber, Jr.
Oxidation Processes
Limitations of Oxidative Processes and Oxidizing Agents in Water and Wastewater Treatment
Principles and Theories of Chemical Oxidation
Concepts and Definitions
Oxidative Degradation versus Substitution
Balancing Redox Reactions
Thermodynamic Considerations
Kinetic Considerations
Effects of Catalysts on Chemical Oxidations
Role of pH in Chemical Oxidations
Nature of Reactants
Oxygen
Physical and Chemical Properties of Oxygen
Specific Applications
Ozone
Physical and Chemical Properties of Ozone
Analytic Methods
Generation of Ozone
Ozone Contacting Systems
Specific Applications
Permanganate
Physical and Chemical Properties of Permanganate
Permanganate Oxidations Related to Water Treatment
Analytic Methods
Mode of Application of Permanganate
Chlorine
Practical Considerations
Chlorine Dioxide
Generation of Chlorine Dioxide
Physical and Chemical Properties of Chlorine Dioxide
Reactions of Chlorine Dioxide
Analytic Methods
Problems
References
9. Disinfection
W. J. Weber, Jr., and H. S. Posselt
Disinfection Processes
The History of Disinfection
Modes of Disinfection
Rates of Disinfection
Disinfectant Concentration
Temperature
Effect of pH
Organic Matter
Nonchemical Methods for Disinfection
Thermal Methods
Ultraviolet Irradiation
Gamma- and X-Irradiation
Chemical Disinfectants
Chlorine and Chlorine Derivatives
Properties of Chlorine
Feeding of Chlorine
Safe Handling of Chlorine
Chemistry of Aqueous Chlorine
Chloramines
Breakpoint Chlorination
Free-Residual Chlorination
Combined-Residual Chlorination
Wastewater Chlorination
Viricidal Effectiveness
Dechlorination
Available Chlorine
Sodium Hypochlorite
Chlorinated Lime
Calcium Hypochlorite
Chlorine Dioxide
Halogens Other Than Chlorine
Fluorine
Bromine
Iodine
Oxidizing Agents Other Than Halogens
Ozone
Hydrogen Peroxide
Permanganate
Miscellaneous Reagents
Heavy Metals
Acids and Bases
Surfactants
Problems
References
10. Corrosion and Corrosion Control
F. M. Donahue
Corrosion Processes
Corrosion in Water Quality Systems
Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion
Electrochemical Thermodynamics
Electrode Potential
Pourbaix Diagrams
Electrosorption
Electrochemical Kinetics
Faradays Laws
The Butler Equation
Mass Transport Control
Mixed Potentials
Metallurgical Properties
Homogeneity
Properties of Metals in Corrosive Environments
General Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
Passivity
Crevice Corrosion
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Pitting Corrosion
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Bacterial Corrosion
Stray Currents
Methods of Corrosion Control
Corrosion Control by Design
Corrosion Control by Environmental Modification
Corrosion Control by Electrochemical Techniques
Corrosion Testing
Plant Testing
Laboratory Testing
Problems
References
11. Aeration and Gas Transfer
R. P. Canale and W. J. Weber, Jr.
Gas Transfer Processes
Transport Steps
Gas Transfer Relationships
Factors Affecting Gas Solubility
Rates of Gas Transfer
Film Transfer
Accumulation in Liquid Phase
Heterogeneous Reaction
Liquid-Phase Transport
Aeration and Gas Transfer Systems
Compressed Air Systems
Aspirator Systems
Mechanical Systems
Factors Affecting Aeration and Oxygen Transfer Rates
Velocity and Size of Bubbles
Effects of Solution Composition
Transfer Correlations
Transfer Correlations for Aerators
Transfer Correlations for Streams
Problems
References
12. Sludge Treatment
R. I. Dick
Sludges and Treatment Processes
Alternatives in Sludge Management
Characteristics of Sludges
Concentration
Specific Gravity
Rheological Properties
Settling Properties
Dewatering Properties
Fuel Value
Chemical Properties
Biological Properties
Sludge Conditioning
Chemical Conditioning Methods
Physical Conditioning Methods
Conditioning with Heat
Conditioning by Freezing
Use of Admixtures
Thickening
Gravity Thickening
Measurement of Settling Properties
Design of Gravity Thickeners
Flotation
Flotation Systems
Dissolved Air Pressure Flotation
Sludge Dewatering
Vacuum Filtration
Other Filtration Methods
Filter Press
Rotary Gravity Filters
Centrifugation
Sludge Drying Beds
Sludge Lagoons
Drying
Conversion Processes
Anaerobic Digestion
Aerobic Digestion
Combustion
Multiple Hearth Furnaces
Fluidized Bed Reactors
Atomized Spray Combustion
Flash Drying Incineration
Wet Air Oxidation
Sludge Reclamation
Ultimate Disposal
Disposal to the Air
Disposal to the Water
Disposal to the Land
Problems
References
Appendix A. Notation
Appendix B. Conversion Factors
Index