Use of Skins and Feathers H-4

Birds in Literature, Culture, and Religion H-6

Art H-6

Religion H-9

Folklore H-10

Literature H-11

Music and Dance H-13

Music and Dance of Indigenous Cultures H-13

Music and Dance of Western Cultures H-18

The Evolution of North American Ornithology H-19

The Early Years: From Aristotle to the 17th Century H-19

The 18th Century H-23

The 19th Century H-25

The American Ornithologists' Union and the U.S. Biological Survey H-32

The First Audubon Movement H-33

The Second Audubon Movement H-34

The 20th Century and the Expanding Role of the Bird Watcher H-35

The Development of the Field Guide H-36

Academic Training in Ornithology H-37

Bird Conservation, Bird Watching and the Age of Technology H-39

Suggested Readings H-42

Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology Chapter 1

Introduction: The World of Birds Ornithological Terms 1-3

The Form of a Bird 1-3

Bill 1-6

Head and Neck 1-7

Trunk 1-9

Wings 1-9

Tail 1-12

Hind Limbs 1-12

Diversity in Bird Form 1-15

The Bill 1-16

The Wings 1-18

The Tail 1-19

The Feet 1-20

Feathering 1-23

Internal Anatomy 1-24

Diversity in Bird Movement 1-24

Movement on Land 1-24

Movement in Water 1-28

Naming and Classification of Birds 1-32

History 1-32

Methods Used to Classify Birds 1-40

Binomial Nomenclature and Classification System 1-45

The Species 1-53

The Formation of Species 1-55

Orders and Families of World Birds 1-61

Orders and Families of North American Birds 1-64

How Naming and Classification Can Help You 1-64

The Use of Common Names 1-64

Evolution of Birds and Avian Flight 1-66

Bird Distribution 1-66

Distribution of Land Birds 1-69

Palearctic Region 1-69

Nearctic Region 1-71

Neotropical Region 1-72

Afrotropical Region 1-81

Oriental Region 1-88

Australasian Region 1-91

Island Distribution 1-97

Distribution of Marine Birds 1-98

Northern Marine Region 1-99

Southern Marine Region 1-100

Tropical Marine Region 1-101

Plankton and Bird Distribution 1-101

The Importance of Biodiversity 1-106

Appendix A: Orders and Families of World Birds 1-107

Appendix B: Orders and Families of North American Birds 1-111

Appendix C: Geological Time Scale 1-113

Sidebars Sidebar 1: Which Way is Up? 1-4

Sidebar 2: The Evolution of an Idea: Darwin's Theory 1-34

Sidebar 3: Latin and Greek Roots of Biological Terms 1-48

CHAPTER 2: A Guide to Bird Watching How to Identify Birds 2-4

Shape 2-5

Postures and Flight Patterns 2-5

Behaviors 2-7

Size 2-7

Comparing Body Features 2-9

Field Marks 2-10

Head 2-10

Bill Shape and Color 2-11

Wings 2-12

Tail 2-12

Legs 2-13

Colors and Plumage Patterns 2-13

Songs 2-14

Habitat 2-18

Range and Abundance 2-19

Time of Year 2-19

Sorting Out Birds 2-23

Closing the Distance 2-23

Sitting Quietly 2-23

Pishing and Squeaking 2-26

Mobbing 2-26

Playback Songs 2-28

Bird Blinds 2-29

Viewing Birds 2-29

Using Binoculars 2-29

Pointing Out Birds to Others 2-32

Selecting Binoculars 2-34

Magnification Power 2-34

Light-gathering Capacity 2-35

Field of View 2-37

Resolution 2-37

Alignment 2-38

Binocular Designs 2-38

Mini Binoculars 2-39

Binoculars for Eyeglass Wearers 2-40

How to Shop for Binoculars 2-40

How to Clean Binoculars 2-41

Protecting Binoculars 2-41

Selecting a Spotting Scope and Tripod 2-42

How to Shop for a Spotting Scope 2-44

Recording Observations 2-44

Checklists 2-46

Journals 2-47

Reporting Rare Birds 2-54

Listing Birds 2-54

Counting Birds 2-55

Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology Conclusion 2-57

The Birder's Essential Resources 2-58

Field Guides 2-58

General References 2-59

Textbooks 2-60

Popular Bird Magazines 2-60

Scientific Journals 2-61

Leisure Reading 2-62

Audio Guides 2-63

Web Sites 2-63

Sidebars Sidebar 1: Attracting Birds to Your Yard 2-24

Sidebar 2: How to Calibrate Binoculars For Your Eyes 2-30

Sidebar 3: Sketching Birds in the Field 2-50

CHAPTER 3: Form and Function: The External Bird Feather Tracts 3-2

Feather Form and Function 3-3

Feather Structure 3-3

Types of Feathers 3-4

Contour Feathers 3-5

Down Feathers 3-16

Semiplumes 3-17

Filoplumes 3-17

Powder Downs 3-18

Care of Feathers 3-18

Preening 3-18

Oiling 3-20

Head-Scratching 3-20

Bathing 3-21

Sunning 3-22

Anting 3-22

Ectoparasites 3-23

Development of Feathers 3-26

Molts and Plumages 3-28

Annual Molt and Wear Cycles 3-29

Subadult and Definitive Plumages 3-30

Plumage Naming Systems 3-33

The Progression of a Molt 3-34

Nonfeathered Areas 3-39

Eyes 3-39

Bill 3-39

Legs and Feet 3-43

Other Unfeathered Areas 3-46

Colors 3-48

Pigments 3-50

Abnormalities and Variations in Pigment Colors 3-52

Structural Colors 3-54

Functions of Color and Color Patterns 3-60

Cryptic Coloration and Patterns 3-60

Blending In 3-61

Disruptive Coloration 3-62

Countershading 3-63

Behaviors that Aid Concealment 3-63

Conspicuous Markings and Predation 3-64

Reduction of Glare for Foraging 3-64

The Role of Color and Pattern in Social Behavior 3-65

Species Recognition 3-66

Age Recognition 3-66

Sex Recognition 3-67

Individual Recognition 3-67

Flock Attraction 3-68

Sexual Selection 3-68

Sidebars Sidebar 1: Feather Detective 3-6

Sidebar 2: Feather Facts 3-11

Sidebar 3: Iridescence 3-56

CHAPTER 4: What's Inside: Anatomy and Physiology The Skeletal System 4-3

Axial Skeleton 4-10

Skull 4-10

Hyoid Apparatus 4-13

Vertebral Column 4-14

Appendicular Skeleton 4-18

Pectoral Girdle 4-19

Bones of the Wing 4-21

Sternum 4-23

Pelvic Girdle 4-24

Bones of the Hind Limb 4-24

The Muscular System 4-26

Skeletal Muscle 4-26

Smooth Muscle 4-28

Cardiac Muscle 4-31

The Nervous System 4-31

The Neuron 4-32

Sensory and Motor Neurons 4-33

Central Nervous System 4-35

Brain 4-36

Spinal Cord 4-38

Peripheral Nervous System 4-40

Cranial Nerves 4-40

Spinal Nerves 4-42

Autonomic Nervous System 4-43

The Senses 4-45

Vision 4-45

The Structure of the Eye 4-46

How Birds See 4-50

The Ear and Hearing 4-54

Structure and Function of the Ear 4-56

Hearing Ability 4-61

Olfaction 4-62

Taste 4-65

Skin Senses 4-69

The Endocrine System 4-69

Pituitary Gland 4-72

Thyroid Glands 4-74

Parathyroid and Ultimobranchial Glands 4-74

Adrenal Glands 4-74

Gonads 4-75

Pancreas 4-75

The Circulatory System 4-76

The Heart 4-77

Heart Valves 4-78

Blood Supply to the Heart Tissue 4-79

Conducting System of the Heart 4-79

Location of the Heart 4-80

Blood Vessels 4-81

Capillaries 4-81

Arterial System 4-82

Venous System 4-84

Blood 4-86

Lymphatic System 4-88

The Respiratory System 4-89

Nostrils and Nasal Cavities 4-90

Pharynx 4-91

Larynx 4-91

Trachea 4-92

Syrinx 4-93

Lungs and Air Tubes 4-98

Air Sacs 4-100

Breathing and Gas Exchange 4-100

The Digestive System 4-103

Oral Cavity 4-103

Bill 4-103

Tongue 4-111

Salivary Glands and Saliva 4-111

Pharynx 4-112

Alimentary Canal 4-113

Esophagus 4-113

Stomach 4-118

Small Intestine 4-120

Colic Ceca 4-123

Large Intestine 4-123

Cloaca 4-123

Liver 4-124

The Urogenital System 4-124

Urinary System 4-125

Genital System 4-127

Male Genitals 4-127

Female Genitals 4-128

Copulation and Fertilization 4-133

Sex Determination 4-133

Handbook of Bird Biology Hormones and Secondary Sex Characters 4-137

Factors Bringing Birds into Breeding Condition 4-140

Metabolism 4-144

Body Temperature 4-146

Countercurrent Heat-Exchange Systems 4-148

Cooling 4-152

Torpor 4-153

Heart Size and Heart Rate 4-154

Respiratory Rate 4-156

Water and Salt Regulation 4-157

Life Span and Senescence 4-158

Major Anatomical Differences between Birds and Mammals 4-161

Skeleton 4-161

Muscles 4-161

Nervous System 4-161

Ear 4-162

Eye 4-162

Circulatory System 4-162

Respiratory System 4-162

Digestive System 4-163

Urogenital System 4-163

Suggested Readings 4-163

Sidebars Sidebar 1: The Amazing World of Avian ESP 4-66

Sidebar 2: Bird Song: From Oboe and Trombone to Orator and Soprano 4-94

CHAPTER 5: Birds on the Move: Flight and Migration The Flight Syndrome 5-2

Functions of the Flight Muscles 5-7

How Do Birds Fly? 5-8

Forces Acting on a Bird in Flight 5-9

Gravity 5-10

Lift 5-10

Drag 5-16

Thrust 5-16

Function of the Tail 5-21

Landing 5-21

Hovering 5-26

Complex Control of Flight 5-30

Wing Loading 5-31

Turbulence 5-33

Variations in Wing Shape and Flight Style 5-36

Elliptical Wings 5-37

High-speed Wings 5-38

Slotted High-lift Wings 5-39

High-Aspect-Ratio Wings 5-42

Some Flight Facts and Figures 5-45

Air Speed 5-45

Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology Wingbeat Frequency 5-45

Flocking and Flying in Formation 5-45

Loss of Flight 5-48

Migration 5-51

Patterns of Migration 5-52

The Origin and Evolution of Migration 5-57

Controlling and Synchronizing the Annual Cycle 5-61

The Physiology of Migration 5-63

Daily Timing of Migration 5-65

The Altitude of Migration 5-66

Flight Speed and the Progress of Migration 5-68

Weather and Migration 5-69

Migration Routes 5-73

Site Fidelity 5-75

Orientation and Navigation 5-79

Compass Mechanisms 5-84

Sun Compass 5-84

Star Compass 5-86

Magnetic Compass 5-89

Navigational Maps 5-92

Sunset Cues 5-92

Suggested Readings 5-99

Sidebars Sidebar 1: Flapping Flight 5-22

Sidebar 2: Showdown at Delaware Bay 5-76

Sidebar 3: Polarized Light 5-94

Evolution of Birds and Avian Flight Archaeopteryx and Other Urvogels 2

The Descent of Birds 7

Flight Origins 13

Ground-Up (Cursorial) Theory 14

Trees-Down (Arboreal) Theory 18

Early Bird Flight 19

The Early Fossil Record of Birds 20

Palaeognathous Birds 21

Bird Evolution's Big Bang 25

Appendix A: Bird Evolution Theories and Early Diapsid Reptiles 27

Appendix B: Hypothesized Relationships Among Ancient and Modern Bird Groups 29

Appendix C: Index to Fossil Organisms 31

Figure Credits for Appendix C 34

CHAPTER 6: Understanding Bird Behavior Questions About Behavior 6-2

The Proximate Basis of Bird Behavior 6-4

Ethology, Ornithology, and Instincts 6-7

Learned Behavior 6-8

A Comparison of Instincts and Learning 6-14

Ultimate Causes of Bird Behavior 6-15

Territoriality, Dominance Hierarchies, and Ritualized Aggression 6-22

The Evolution of Ritualized Displays 6-30

Courtship Displays 6-34

The Use of Darwinian Evolutionary Theory 6-42

Feeding Behavior: Why do Birds Generally Restrict their Diets, Ignoring Some Edible Foods in Favor of Others? 6-43

Antipredator Behavior: Why do Some Birds Mob Predators? 6-50

Nest Spacing: Why do Some Birds Nest in Large Colonies? 6-58

Reproductive Behavior: Why Are There Different Kinds of Avian Mating Systems? 6-68

Reproductive Behavior: Resource-defense and Female-defense Polygyny 6-73

Reproductive Behavior: Lek Polygyny 6-75

Reproductive Behavior: Polyandry 6-77

Mate Choice: Extrapair Copulations in Birds 6-79

Mate Choice: Why do Some Birds Display Elaborate Ornaments? 6-81

Mate Choice: Why Cooperate in Courtship Displays? 6-85

Parental Behavior: Why do Some Birds Ignore Lethal Aggression Among their Nestlings? 6-87

Parental Behavior: Why are there "Helpers at the Nest" that Care for Someone Else's Offspring? 6-88

How to Study Bird Behavior Yourself 6-91

Suggested Readings 6-98

Sidebars Sidebar 1: Bird Brains 6-16

Sidebar 2: Play 6-19

Sidebar 3: Defense Behavior 6-52

Sidebar 4: Living in Groups 6-60

Sidebar 5: Length of the Pair Bond 6-72

Sidebar 6: Bird Families as Models for Understanding Ourselves 6-92

CHAPTER 7: Vocal Behavior What is Sound? 7-3

Seeing Sounds: Sonagrams and Oscillograms 7-4

Use of Tape or CD with Chapter Text 7-6

Understanding Complex Songs 7-9

Vocal Repertoires 7-10

The Problem of Meaning 7-11

Song 7-14

The Structure and Function of Sounds 7-19

Vocal Development 7-23

Vocal Development in Songbirds 7-25

Vocal Development in Nonsongbirds 7-30

Songbird Diversity 7-34

Control of Song 7-37

Variation in Space and Time 7-41

Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology Species Differences 7-42

Individual Variation 7-42

Song Dialects 7-53

Geographic Variation in Suboscine Vocalizations 7-57

The Diversity of Geographic Patterns in Songbirds 7-58

Song Change Over Time 7-63

Dialects Over Broad Regions 7-64

The Functions of Song 7-66

Dawn Chorus 7-75

Duetting 7-78

Mimicry 7-81

Flight Songs 7-84

Song Repertoires 7-85

Suggested Readings 7-91

Appendix A: Descriptions of Tape/CD Tracks 7-93

Sidebars Sidebar 1: Winnows, Snaps, and Spring Thunder--Nonvocal Sounds 7-15

Sidebar 2: Listen Up!.7-44

Sidebar 3: Pushing the Limits: New Computer Techniques for Studying Bird Song 7-48

Sidebar 4: Do Birds Think? 7-67

Sidebar 5: "Call Notes" and Their Functions 7-72

Sidebar 6: Listening on Your Own 7-88

CHAPTER 8: Nests, Eggs, and Young: Breeding Biology of Birds Survival 8-3

The Timing of Breeding 8-10

Breeding Territories 8-13

Functions of Breeding Territories 8-14

Nests and Nest Building 8-15

Functions of Nests 8-18

Diversity of Nest Sites 8-20

Seasonal Changes in Nest Sites 8-22

Nest Site Selection 8-23

Diversity of Nests 8-24

The Evolution of Nest Construction 8-44

Nest Lining 8-47

Nest-building Behavior 8-50

Sex Roles in Nest Building 8-56

Duration of Nest Building 8-57

Nest Appropriation and Reuse 8-57

Eggs 8-59

Egg Structure 8-59

Egg Size 8-70

Egg Shape 8-72

Egg Surface Texture 8-74

Egg Color 8-75

Egg Laying 8-77

Clutch Size 8-78

Patterns in Clutch Size Variation 8-78

The Evolution of Clutch Size 8-79

Egg and Clutch Replacement 8-90

Number of Broods per Season 8-91

Incubation 8-93

Incubation Patch 8-94

Incubation Period 8-96

Start of Incubation 8-97

Role of the Sexes 8-99

Patterns of Attentiveness 8-99

Behavior During Incubation 8-101

Changes in Incubation Behavior 8-103

Feeding the Mate 8-103

Development of Young 8-104

Hatching 8-10_

Development at Hatching 8-106

Typical Altricial Young 8-107

Typical Precocial Young 8-117

Recognition Between Parents and Young 8-125

Caring for Young 8-130

Feeding the Young 8-131

Defending the Young 8-134

Nest Sanitation 8-136

Brood Parasites 8-139

Evolution and Adaptation Among Obligate Brood Parasites 8-143

Brood Parasite Ploys 8-143

Host Counterploys and Coevolution 8-146

Evolution and Adaptation in New World Cowbirds 8-148

Conclusion 8-152

Suggested Readings 8-152

Sidebars Sidebar 1: Neat Nesting Facts 8-16

Sidebar 2: Social Weavers 8-40

Sidebar 3: Oölogy: From Hobby to Science 8-80

Sidebar 4: Creches 8-126

CHAPTER 9: Individuals, Populations, and Communities: The Ecology of Birds Birds as Individuals 9-7

Habitat Selection: Choosing a Place to Live 9-8

Thermoregulation: Coping with Heat and Cold 9-13

Water: A Matter of Economy 9-18

Foraging Ecology: Meeting Energy and Nutritional Demands 9-23

How Much Food Does a Bird Need? 9-23

What Types of Food are Eaten? 9-25

Where and How to Forage 9-28

Do Birds Always Forage Optimally? 9-31

Coping with Environmental Fluctuations 9-31

Relationships with Other Individuals 9-38

Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology Types of Intraspecific Competition 9-39

Life History Strategies: Putting it All Together 9-43

Birds in Populations 9-48

Characteristics of Bird Populations 9-49

Geographic Distribution Patterns 9-49

Population Size 9-58

How Do We Determine Population Size? 9-60

What Affects Population Size? 9-62

What Regulates Population Size? 9-67

Extinction: The Death of the Last Individual in a Population 9-75

Structure of Bird Populations 9-80

Bird Communities 9-82

Characteristics of Bird Communities 9-82

Patterns of Species Richness 9-85

Effects of Latitude 9-85

Effects of Habitat Complexity and Productivity 9-92

Effects of Habitat Size 9-95

Habitat Patches as "Islands" 9-97

Patterns of Relative Abundance 9-101

Ecological Niches 9-102

Are Bird Communities Organized in Optimal Ways? 9-104

Birds as Components of Ecosystems 9-109

Ecological Distribution of Birds in the Major Terrestrial Ecosystems of North America 9-109

Tundra 9-114

Coniferous Forest 9-116

Deciduous Forest 9-117

Grassland 9-118

Southwestern Oak Woodland 9-120

Chaparral 9-120

Pinyon-Juniper Woodland 9-121

Sagebrush 9-121

Scrub Desert 9-122

Two Important Ecotones 9-122

The Role of Birds in the Food Chain 9-123

What if Birds Disappeared? 9-126

Sidebars Sidebar 1: The Winter Banquet 9-32

Sidebar 2: The House Finch Hot Zone 9-71

Sidebar 3: Ant Followers 9-88

Sidebar 4: From Blackberries to Beeches: Ecological Succession in Eastern Deciduous Forests 9-110

Sidebar 5: Sapsuckers, Swallows, Willows, Aspen, and Rot 9-128

CHAPTER 10: Bird Conservation Historical Context 10-4

Global Spread of Humans Begins the Extinction Era 10-5

Early Extinctions in North America and the Caribbean 10-6

Modern Extinctions on Mainland North America 10-9

Labrador Duck

Passenger Pigeon

Carolina Parakeet--Removal of a Menace 10-12

Eskimo Curlew--Three Strikes in the Wink of an Eye 10-12

Ivory-billed Woodpecker and Bachman's Warbler — Demise of the Southeastern Forests 10-16

Brief History of Bird Conservation in the United States 10-18

Are North American Birds Disappearing? 10-25

The Forested Northeast 10-29

Grasslands 10-30

Southwestern Riparian Habitats 10-36

Shorebirds 10-37

Conservation Problems: The Ecology of Extinction 10-38

Birth Rates and Death Rates 10-39

Population Increases 10-40

Direct Exploitation 10-48

Introduced Predators 10-49

Chemical Toxins 10-51

Indirect Chemical Pollution 10-56

Introduced Disease 10-58

Habitat Loss 10-59

Habitat Specialization and the "Six Forms of Rarity" 10-61

1. Widely distributed, small local populations, broad habitat tolerance 10-62

2. Widely distributed, large local populations, narrowly specialized habitat requirements 10-63

3. Widely distributed, small local populations, narrowly specialized habitat requirements 10-64

4. Small geographic range, large local populations, broad habitat tolerance 10-65

5. Small geographic range, large local populations, narrowly specialized habitat requirements 10-65

6. Small geographic range, small local populations, narrowly specialized habitat requirements 10-66

Unique Problems on Islands 10-67

Habitat Fragmentation: Mainland Habitats as Islands 10-71

Conservation Genetics 10-74

Conservation Solutions: Tools and Prescriptions for Stabilizing Populations 10-76

DNA Fingerprinting and Genetic Augmentation 10-76

Population Viability Analysis and Metapopulations 10-77

Preserve Design 10-78

Habitat Management 10-81

Ecosystem Management 10-83

Adaptive Management 10-84

Translocation 10-89

Legal Protection 10-90

Endangered Species Act 10-91

Clean Water Act, Section 404 10-93

CITES 10-93

Bringing Birds Back from the Brink 10-94

Wood Duck

Whooping Crane

Peregrine Falcon--Pesticide Regulation and "Soft Release" Reintroduction 10-100

California Condor--Wild Capture, Captive-rearing, and Study of "Surrogates" 10-102

Maui Parrotbill and Akohekohe — Protected Habitat and Feral Mammal Control 10-103

Why Protect Birds? 10-104

Direct Benefits 10-105

Food 10-105

Clothing 10-105

Other Utilitarian Uses 10-105

Recreational Hunting 10-105

Bird Watching 10-106

Indirect Benefits 10-106

Ecological and Evolutionary Roles 10-106

Environmental Services 10-107

Biological Indicators 10-108

Genetic Information 10-109

Scientific Study 10-109

Aesthetics and Spiritual Values 10-110

What Can Each of Us Do? 10-110

Backyard Conservation 10-110

Be a Citizen Scientist 10-112

Adopt a Place 10-112

Local Vigilance and Grassroots Activism 10-113

Environmental Education 10-114

Take a Child Birding 10-114

Contribute to Conservation Organizations 10-115

Never Give Up 10-116

SIDEBARS

Sidebar 1: A Summer Without Bobolinks 10-31

Sidebar 2: The Best Laid Plans: What Happens When Conservation Efforts Work Too Well? 10-44

Sidebar 3: Hawk Deaths Spur Action 10-54

Sidebar 4: Conservation Planning at Ecoregional Scales 10-86