Preface IX
1 Introduction 1
2 Nanoparticles – Nanocomposites 7
2.1 Nanoparticles 7
2.2 Elementary Consequences of Small Particle Size 13
2.2.1 Surface of Nanoparticles 13
2.2.2 Thermal Phenomena 15
2.2.3 Diffusion Scaling Law 17
References 20
3 Surfaces in Nanomaterials 21
3.1 General Considerations 21
3.2 Surface Energy 23
3.3 Vapor Pressure of Small Particles 30
3.4 Hypothetical Nanomotors Driven by Surface Energy 35
References 38
4 Gas-Phase Synthesis of Nanoparticles 39
4.1 Fundamental Considerations 39
4.2 Inert-Gas Condensation Process 47
4.3 Physical and Chemical Vapor Synthesis Processes 48
4.4 Laser-Ablation Process 52
4.5 Plasma Processes 55
4.5.1 Microwave Plasma Processes 55
4.5.2 RF and DC Plasma Processes 63
4.6 Flame Processes 67
4.7 Synthesis of Coated Particles 72
References 76
5 One- and Two-Dimensional Nanoparticles 79
5.1 Basic Considerations 79
5.2 Vibrations of Nanorods and Nanotubes – Scaling Law for Vibrations 88
5.3 Nanostructures Related to Compounds with Layered Structures 89
5.3.1 Carbon- and Boron-Nitride-Based Nanoparticles 89
5.3.2 Nanotubes, Nanorods, and Nanoplates from Materials other than Carbon 97
5.3.3 Polymer Composites Filled with Defoliated Phyllosilicates 101
5.3.4 Synthesis of Nanotubes, Nanorods, and Fullerenes 102
References 110
6 Nanofluids 111
6.1 Background 111
6.2 Nanofluids for Improved Heat Transfer 111
6.3 Ferrofluids 113
6.3.1 Properties of Ferrofluids 113
6.3.2 Applications of Ferrofluids 117
References 119
7 Thermodynamics of Nanoparticles and Phase Transformations 121
7.1 Basic Considerations 121
7.2 Influence of the Particle Size on Thermodynamic Properties and Phase Transformations 121
7.3 Thermal Instabilities Connected to Phase Transformations 132
7.4 Heat Capacity of Nanoparticles 141
References 144
8 Magnetic Nanomaterials, Superparamagnetism 147
8.1 Magnetic Materials 147
8.2 Fundamentals of Superparamagnetism 152
8.3 Susceptibility of Superparamagnetic Materials 162
8.4 Superparamagnetic Particles in the Mößbauer Spectrum 163
8.5 Applications of Superparamagnetic Materials 168
8.6 Exchange-Coupled Magnetic Nanoparticles 173
References 178
9 Optical Properties 181
9.1 General Remarks 181
9.2 Adjustment of the Index of Refraction and Visually Transparent UV Absorbers 181
9.3 Size-Dependent Optical Properties – Quantum Confi nement 184
9.4 Semiconducting Particles in the Quantum-Confinement Range 189
9.5 Metallic Nanoparticles – Plasmon Resonance 197
9.6 Luminescent Nanocomposites 200
9.7 Selection of a Lumophore or Absorber 213
9.8 Electroluminescence 215
9.9 Photochromic and Electrochromic Materials 219
9.9.1 General Considerations 219
9.9.2 Photochromic Materials 220
9.9.3 Electrochromic Materials 222
9.10 Magneto-Optic Applications 224
References 227
10 Electrical Properties 229
10.1 Fundamentals of Electric Conductivity; Diffusive versus Ballistic Conductivity 229
10.2 Carbon Nanotubes 235
10.3 Other One-Dimensional Electrical Conductors 239
10.4 Electrical Conductivity of Nanocomposites 241
References 248
11 Mechanical Properties 249
11.1 General Considerations 249
11.2 Mechanical Properties of Bulk Nanocrystalline Materials 251
11.3 Deformation Mechanisms of Nanocrystalline Materials 255
11.4 Superplasticity 263
11.5 Filled Polymer Composites 265
11.5.1 General Considerations 265
11.5.2 Particle-Filled Polymers 268
11.5.3 Polymer-Based Nanocomposites Filled with Silicate Platelets 269
11.5.4 Carbon-Nanotube- and Graphene-Filled Composites 274
References 278
12 Characterization of Nanomaterials 279
12.1 Specific Surface Area 279
12.2 Analysis of the Crystalline Structure 282
12.3 Electron Microscopy 287
12.3.1 General Considerations 287
12.3.2 Setup of Electron Microscopes 290
12.3.3 Interaction of the Electron Beam with the Specimen 292
12.3.4 Some Examples of Transmission Electron Microscopy 297
12.3.5 High-Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy 300
References 303
Index 305