Part one
An Introduction to Understanding Research
CHAPTER 1
The Process of Research: Learning How Research Is Conducted and Reported
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY REPORTS OF RESEARCH?
Recognize that Formal Research Includes the Collection and Analysis of Data
Distinguish Reports of Research from Other Types of Scholarly Writing
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
WHY DO YOU NEED TO READ RESEARCH REPORTS?
Read Research to Add to Your Professional Knowledge
Read Research to Inform Your Position in Policy Debates
Read Research to Improve Your Practice
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
WHERE DO YOU FIND REPORTS OF RESEARCH?
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
WHAT STEPS DO RESEARCHERS TAKE WHEN CONDUCTING THEIR STUDIES?
Step 1—Identifying a Research Problem
Step 2—Reviewing the Literature
Step 3—Specifying a Purpose
Step 4—Choosing a Research Design
Step 5—Selecting Participants and Collecting Data
Step 6—Analyzing the Data and Reporting Results
Step 7—Drawing Conclusions
Step 8—Disseminating and Evaluating the Research
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS WITHIN THE MAJOR SECTIONS OF A RESEARCH ARTICLE?
Front Matter
The Introduction Section
The Method Section
The Results Section
The Conclusion Section
Back Matter
LET’S APPLY THE RESEARCH PROCESS TO READING ACTUAL STUDIES
Reviewing What We’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
AN EXAMPLE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: THE PHYSICAL-ACTIVITY-IN–MIDDLE-SCHOOLS STUDY
AN EXAMPLE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: THE PHYSICAL-ACTIVITY-AT-DAYCARE STUDY
CHAPTER 2
Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Understanding Different Types of Study Reports
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STUDIES?
Quantitative Research Studies Emphasize Numeric Data and Statistical Analyses to Explain Variables
Qualitative Research Studies Emphasize Text Data and Thematic Analyses to Explore a Phenomenon
Combined Research Studies Includes Both Quantitative and Qualitative Research to Examine a Topic
WHY SHOULD YOU READ BOTH QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STUDIES?
WHAT ARE THE KEY DIFFERENCES IN THE STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS IN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES?
Step 1—Researchers Identify a Research Problem
Step 2—Researchers Review the Literature
Step 3—Researchers Specify a Purpose
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Step 4—Researchers Choose a Research Design
Step 5—Researchers Select Participants and Collect Data
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Step 6—Researchers Analyze Data and Report Results
Step 7—Researchers Draw Conclusions
Step 8—Researchers Disseminate and Evaluate the Research
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES?
Reviewing What We’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
Part TWO
Understanding the Introductions to Research Reports
CHAPTER 3
The Statement of the Problem: Identifying Why a Study Is Important
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A RESEARCH STUDY?
Locate the Statement of the Problem in the Introduction Section
Identify the Problem That Needs to Be Solved
Distinguish the Research Problem from the Study’s Topic and Purpose
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
WHY DO RESEARCHERS NEED TO STUDY RESEARCH PROBLEMS?
HOW DO YOU DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE TYPES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS FOUND IN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES?
Quantitative Research Is Used When the Research Problem Calls for Explanation
Qualitative Research Is Used When the Research Problem Calls for Exploration
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE ELEMENTS OF A STUDY’S STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM?
Find the Topic
Identify the Research Problem
Note the Justification for the Importance of the Problem
Identify the Knowledge About the Problem That Is Missing
Note the Audiences That Will Benefit from the Knowledge Generated by the Study
Consider the Five Elements to Understand a Study’s Statement of the Problem Passage
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A RESEARCH STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
AN EXAMPLE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: THE BULLYING-INTERVENTION STUDY
CHAPTER 4
The Literature Review: Examining the Background for a Study
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE LITERATURE REVIEW IN A RESEARCH STUDY?
Look for the Literature Review in a Stand-Alone Section
Note Where Researchers Refer to Others’ Work from the Literature
HOW DO RESEARCHERS USE LITERATURE IN THEIR STUDIES?
Literature Provides a Justification for the Research Problem
Literature Documents What Is and Is Not Known About the Topic
Literature Identifies the Theory or Conceptual Framework Behind a Study
Literature Provides Models for the Methods and Procedures Used in a Study
Literature Helps Researchers Interpret Their Results
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DOES THE USE OF LITERATURE DIFFER IN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES?
The Use of Literature Is More Prescriptive and Static in Quantitative Research
The Use of Literature Is More Informative and Dynamic in Qualitative Research
WHAT ARE THE STEPS THAT YOU CAN USE TO REVIEW THE LITERATURE?
Step 1—Identify Key Terms Related to the Topic of the Literature Review
Step 2—Search Databases Using the Key Terms to Locate Literature
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Step 3—Select Literature That Is Relevant and of Good Quality
Step 4—Take Notes on the Key Aspects of Each Selected Document
HOW DO YOU SYNTHESIZE LITERATURE AND WRITE A LITERATURE REVIEW?
Step 1—Organize the Literature Into Themes
Step 2—Write a Summary of the Major Themes
Step 3—Document the Sources by Including Citations to the Literature
Step 4—Provide Your Conclusions About the Literature
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE A LITERATURE REVIEW IN A RESEARCH STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
AN EXAMPLE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: THE ADOLESCENT-HOMELESSNESS STUDY
CHAPTER 5
Purpose Statements, Research Questions, and Hypotheses: Identifying the Intent of a Study
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE PURPOSE IN A RESEARCH STUDY?
Identify the Study’s Purpose Statement First
Look for Research Questions that Narrow the Study’s Purpose
Look for Hypotheses that Narrow the Study’s Purpose to Predictions
HOW DOES THE RESEARCH PURPOSE DIFFER IN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES?
Quantitative Researchers Specify Purposes That Are Narrow and Specific
Qualitative Researchers Specify Purposes That Are Broad and General
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?
Variables are the Measurement of Constructs
Variables Are Connected to Other Variables Through Theories
Researchers Study Dependent, Independent, Control, and Confounding Variables
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND PURPOSE STATEMENTS, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?
Read Purpose Statements to Learn the Study’s Overall Quantitative Intent
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Read Quantitative Research Questions to Learn the Researchers’ Specific Questions
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Read Quantitative Hypotheses to Learn the Researchers’ Specific Predictions
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY A CENTRAL PHENOMENON IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
A Central Phenomenon is A Concept, Activity, or Process
Researchers Study a Central Phenomenon to Learn About Its Meaning and Complexity
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND PURPOSE STATEMENTS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
Read Purpose Statements to Learn the Study’s Overall Qualitative Intent
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Read the Central Research Question and Subquestions to Learn the Researchers’ General Questions
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE PURPOSE IN A RESEARCH STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
Part THREE
Understanding the Method Sections and Results Sections of Quantitative Research Reports
CHAPTER 6
Quantitative Research Designs: Recognizing the Overall Plan for a Study
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE RESEARCH DESIGN IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
WHAT CHARACTERISTICS DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGNS?
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND FIVE COMMON QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS?
The True Experiment Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Quasi-Experiment Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Single-Subject Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Correlational Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Survey Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU RECOGNIZE THE RESEARCH DESIGN IN A QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT?
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE RESEARCH DESIGN IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
AN EXAMPLE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: THE EARLY-INTERVENTION-OUTCOMES STUDY
CHAPTER 7
Participants and Data Collection: Identifying How Quantitative Information Is Gathered
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE PARTICIPANTS AND DATA COLLECTION IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
Look for Information About the Sites and Participants
Note the General Procedures for Collecting Data
Identify the Instruments Used to Gather Quantitative Data
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE SELECTION OF SITES AND PARTICIPANTS IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
Identify the Population and Sample
Determine the Sampling Strategy That Was Used
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Determine Whether the Sample Included a Large Number of Participants
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE INSTRUMENTS USED TO GATHER QUANTITATIVE DATA IN A STUDY?
Identify How the Researcher Specified the Variables
Identify the Type of Instrument Used to Gather Information
Assess the Evidence that the Researcher Used a Good Instrument
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE PROCEDURES THAT RESEARCHERS USE WHEN COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA?
Note Indicators that the Procedures Were Ethical
Expect the Data Collection Procedures to Be Standardized
Identify How the Researchers Reduced Threats to the Studies’ Conclusions
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE PARTICIPANTS AND DATA COLLECTION IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
CHAPTER 8
Data Analysis and Results: Examining What Was Found in a Quantitative Study
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
Look to the Method Section for a General Description of the Data Analysis Process
Examine the Results Section to Find the Results for the Study’s Research Questions and Hypotheses
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND A STUDY’S QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS?
Step 1—Identify How the Researchers Scored the Data
Step 2—Note How the Researchers Prepared the Quantitative Data for Analysis
Step 3—Recognize How the Researchers Used Descriptive Statistics to Answer Descriptive Research Questions
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Step 4—Identify How the Researchers Used Inferential Statistics to Answer Comparison and Relationship Research Questions
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE RESULTS IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
First—Examine Tables to Learn A Summary of Major Results
Second—Examine Figures to Learn How Variables Are Related
Third—Read the Detailed Explanations of the Results in the Text
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS IN A QUANTITATIVE STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
Part four
Understanding the Method Sections and Results Sections of Qualitative Research Reports
CHAPTER 9
Qualitative Research Designs: Recognizing the Overall Plan for a Study
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE RESEARCH DESIGN IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
WHAT CHARACTERISTICS DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS?
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND FOUR COMMON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS?
The Narrative Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Case Study Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Ethnographic Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Grounded Theory Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU RECOGNIZE THE RESEARCH DESIGN IN A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT?
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE RESEARCH DESIGN IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
AN EXAMPLE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: THE ADOPTION-OF-PEDAGOGICAL-TOOLS STUDY
CHAPTER 10
Participants and Data Collection: Identifying How Qualitative Information Is Gathered
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE PARTICIPANTS AND DATA COLLECTION IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
Look for Information About the Sites and Participants
Identify the Types of Qualitative Data Gathered
Discern the Procedures Used to Gather the Data
Note the Issues Related to Collecting Data
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE SELECTION OF SITES AND PARTICIPANTS IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
Sites and Participants Are Purposefully Selected
Specific Strategies Guide the Purposeful Sampling
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
A Small Number of Sites and Participants Are Selected
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
WHAT TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA DO RESEARCHERS COLLECT?
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE COMMON QUALITATIVE DATA-COLLECTION PROCEDURES?
Procedures for Qualitative Interviews
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Procedures for Qualitative Observations
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Procedures for the Collection of Documents
Procedures for the Collection of Audiovisual Materials
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE ISSUES THAT ARE REPORTED ABOUT QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION?
Pay Attention to How the Researchers Handled Ethical Issues
Learn About the Challenges that Occurred in Gaining Access and Gathering Data
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE PARTICIPANTS AND DATA COLLECTION IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
CHAPTER 11
Data Analysis and Findings: Examining What Was Found in a Qualitative Study
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
Look to the Method Section for an Overview of the Qualitative Analysis Process
Look to the Results Section for the Qualitative Findings Produced by the Analysis Process
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND A STUDY’S QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS?
Step 1—Identify How the Researchers Prepared Their Data
Step 2—Note Whether the Researchers Explored Their Data
Step 3—Discern the Researchers’ Use of Coding
Step 4—Examine How the Researchers Refined Their Codes and Used Them to Build Their Results
Step 5—Identify the Strategies the Researchers Used to Validate Their Results
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE FINDINGS IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
Read Descriptive Findings to Learn the Context of the Study and the Central Phenomenon
Examine Themes to Learn the Larger Ideas Found about the Study’s Central Phenomenon
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
Use Tables and Figures to Learn More about the Details and Complexity of the Findings
Consider the Form of the Findings in Relation to the Research Design
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
Part Five
Understanding Reports That Combine Quantitative and Qualitative Research
CHAPTER 12
Mixed Methods Research: Studies That Mix Quantitative and Qualitative Research
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THAT A STUDY USED MIXED METHODS RESEARCH?
Note Key Terms that Signal the Use of Mixed Methods
Note the Collection and Analysis of Both Quantitative and Qualitative Data
WHEN IS IT APPROPRIATE FOR RESEARCHERS TO HAVE USED MIXED METHODS RESEARCH IN THEIR STUDIES?
Mixed Methods Is Appropriate If the Researcher Needs to Combine the Strengths of Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Mixed Methods Is Appropriate If the Researcher Needs to Build from One Type of Data to the Other
Mixed Methods Is Appropriate If the Researcher Needs to Answer Two Questions
WHAT CHARACTERISTICS DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT MIXED METHODS DESIGNS?
Mixed Methods Designs Differ in Terms of their Timing
Mixed Methods Designs Differ in Terms of their Priority
Mixed Methods Designs Differ in Terms of their Mixing
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE COMMON MIXED METHODS RESEARCH DESIGNS?
The Convergent Parallel Mixed Methods Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Sequential Explanatory Mixed Methods Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Sequential Exploratory Mixed Methods Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Embedded Mixed Methods Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE A MIXED METHODS RESEARCH STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
AN EXAMPLE OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: THE MIXED METHODS STUDENT NOTE TAKING STUDY
CHAPTER 13
Action Research Designs: Research for Solving Practical Problems
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THAT A STUDY USED ACTION RESEARCH?
Recognize that Action Researchers Include Practitioners
Identify that the Focus is on a Real Problem in a Local Setting
Notice that the Action Researcher Used a Cyclical Process of Research
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND ACTION RESEARCH DESIGNS?
The Practical Action Research Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
The Participatory Action Research (PAR) Design
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU PLAN YOUR OWN ACTION RESEARCH STUDY?
Step 1—Determine if Action Research Is Possible in Your Setting and with Your Colleagues
Step 2—Specify the Problem You Want to Study
Step 3—Locate Resources to Help You Address the Problem
Step 4—Identify Information You Need to Examine the Problem
Step 5—Implement the Data Collection
Step 6—Analyze the Data
Step 7—Develop a Plan for Action
Step 8—Implement the Plan and Reflect
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE AN ACTION RESEARCH STUDY?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
AN EXAMPLE OF ACTION RESEARCH: THE LEARNING-BY-TALKING ACTION RESEARCH STUDY
Part SIX
Understanding the Final Sections of Research Reports
CHAPTER 14
Conclusions: Identifying the Interpretations and Implications of a Study
HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY THE CONCLUSIONS AND SUPPORTING INFORMATION IN A STUDY REPORT?
Look for the Conclusion Section to Learn How the Researcher Interpreted and Evaluated the Study
Read the Back Matter to Find Supporting Information for the Study Report
HOW DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE ELEMENTS DISCUSSED IN A STUDY’S CONCLUSION SECTION?
A Summary of the Major Results
Relating the Results to Other Literature
The Personal Interpretation of the Researcher
Implications for Practice
The Limitations of the Present Study
Future Research Needs
The Overall Significance of the Study
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
HOW ARE CONCLUSIONS SIMILAR AND DIFFERENT AMONG THE DIFFERENT RESEARCH APPROACHES?
´ What Do You Think?
þ Check Your Understanding
WHAT INFORMATION IS INCLUDED IN THE BACK MATTER OF A RESEARCH REPORT?
End Notes
References
Author Notes
Appendices
HOW DO YOU EVALUATE THE CONCLUSIONS AND BACK MATTER OF A RESEARCH REPORT?
Reviewing What You’ve Learned To Do
Practicing Your Skills
Appendix A-Suggested Answers to Short-Answer Questions from the Practicing Your Skills Activities
Appendix B-Example of a Paper Written in the APA Style
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index