Synopses & Reviews
The Aims of Argument focuses on the aimsor purposesof argument: to inquire, to convince, to persuade, and to mediate. In contrast to other books' pedagogy, Aims emphasizes rhetorical contexts, helping students become experts in reading, analyzing, and writing arguments.
Table of Contents
Preface Note to Students About the Authors Brief Contents Boxes by Type
PART ONE RESOURCES FOR READING AND WRITING ARGUMENTS
Chapter 1 Understanding Argument
What Is Argument? What Is Rhetoric? An Example of Argument “You Also Have the Right to Tell a Bigot What You Think,” LEONARD PITTS Discussion of “You Also Have the Right…” Pittss Reasoning Other Appeals in Pittss Argument Four Criteria of Mature Reasoning Mature Reasoners Are Well Informed Mature Reasoners Are Self-Critical and Open to Constructive Criticism from Others Mature Reasoners Argue with Their Audiences or Readers in Mind Mature Reasoners Know Their Arguments Contexts What Are the Aims of Argument? Arguing to Inquire Arguing to Convince Arguing to Persuade Arguing to Mediate A Good Tool for Understanding and Writing Arguments: The Writers Notebook Why Keep a Notebook?
Chapter 2 Reading an Argument
The First Encounter: Seeing the Text in Context Considering the Climate of Opinion Considering the Rhetorical Context An Argument for Critical Reading “On Teenagers and Tattoos,” ANDRES MARTIN The Second Encounter: Reading and Analyzing the Text Wrestling with Difficult Passages Unfamiliar Contexts Contrasting Voices and Views Allusions Specialized Vocabulary Missing Persons Passive Voice Using Paraphrase to Aid Comprehension Analyzing the Reasoning of an Argument Reading Martins Essay Finding Parts Using Context Identifying the Claim and Reasons The Third Encounter: Responding Critically to an Argument Annotation Is Key Sample Annotations Writing Assignment: A Critical Response to a Single Argument In Part One In Part Two Other Advice for Both Parts Student Sample Essay: Critical Response to a Single Argument “The Decorated Body,” FRANCE BOREL A Sample Student Response: Analysis of “The Decorated Body,” KATIE LAHEY
Chapter 3 Analyzing Arguments: A Simplified Toulmin Method
A Preliminary Critical Reading “Rising to the Occasion of Our Death,” WILLIAM F. MAY A Step-by-Step Demonstration of the Toulmin Method Analyzing the Claim Identify the Claim Look for Qualifiers Find the Exceptions Summarize the Claim Analyzing the Reasons List the Reasons Examine the Reasons Analyzing the Evidence List the Evidence Examine the Evidence Noting Refutations Summarizing Your Analysis Student Sample: An Argument for Analysis “Capital Punishment: Societys Self-Defense,” AMBER YOUNG A Final Note about Logical Analysis
Chapter 4 Reading and Writing about Visual Arguments
Understanding Visual Arguments “Reading” Images Analysis: Five Common Types of Visual Argument Advertisements Editorial Cartoons Public Sculpture News Photographs Graphics *“The Rise of Renewable Energy,” DANIEL M. KAMMEN Understanding Kammens Graphics Writing Assignments Assignment 1: Analyzing an Advertisement or Editorial Cartoon Student Sample: Analysis of Visual Rhetoric, “A Mothers Treat,” KELLY WILLIAMS Assignment 2: Analyzing and Creating Posters or Flyers Assignment 3: Using Visual Rhetoric to Promote Your School Assignment 4: Analyzing Your Own Visual Rhetoric Assignment 5: Writing to Convince Assignment 6: Using Graphics to Supplement Your Own Writing or Other Texts Assignment 7: Presenting Information Using PowerPoint
Chapter 5 Writing Research-Based Arguments
Finding an Issue Understand the Difference between a Topic and an Issue Find Issues in the News and Commentary on the News The Internet Magazines and Newspapers Lectures, Panel Discussions, Class Discussions, Conversations Personal Observations Student Example: Finding an Issue on the Topic of Global Warming Finding Sources Keep a Research Log Make Complete Photocopies and Printouts Field Research Observations Questionnaires and Surveys Interviews Library and Internet Research Kinds of Sources Books Periodicals Newspapers Audio-Visual Materials Websites Blogs, Listservs, Usenet Groups, Message Boards Choose the Best Search Terms Use Phrase Searching Start with General Words Think of Synonyms Use Unique or Specific Words and Phrases Use Boolean Searching Searching Your Library Your Librarys Online Catalogue Finding Reference Books through Your Schools Library Your Librarys Online Resources (the Deep Web) Licensed Databases Examples of Searching Licensed Databases Internet Research Domains Commercial (.com) Nonprofit Organizations (.org) Educational Institutions (.edu) Government Agencies (.gov) Advanced Features for Searching the Web Advanced Searches Google Specialized Searches Google Book Google Scholar Subject Directories to the Web Other Web Resources: Blogs, Listservs, Message Boards, and Chat Groups Evaluating Sources Eliminate Inappropriate Sources Carefully Record Complete Bibliographic Information Read the Source Critically Who Is the Writer, and What Is His or Her Bias? How Reliable Is the Source When Was This Source Written? Where Did This Source Appear? Why Was the Book or Article Written? What Is the Authors Aim? How Is the Source Organized? Special Help with Evaluating Websites Using Sources *“Battling Teardowns, Saving Neighborhoods,” RICHARD MOE Ways of “Writing-in-the-Middle” to Gain Mastery over Your Sources 1. Annotate the Source 2. Respond to the Source in Your Notebook 3. Paraphrase Important Ideas from the Source Examples of Adequate and Inadequate Paraphrasing 4. Write Summaries of Portions of a Source 5. Write Capsule Summaries of Entire Sources 6. Dialogue about Sources Incorporating and Documenting Source Material Instructions for Using MLA and APA Styles for In-Text Citations MLA Style APA Style Direct Quotations MLA Style APA Style Altering Direct Quotations with Ellipses and Square Brackets Using Block Quotations MLA Style APA Style In-Text References to Electronic Sources Creating Works Cited and Reference Lists Books Books by One Author Book by Two or Three Authors Book by Four or More Authors Book Prepared by an Editor or Editors Work in an Edited Collection Translated Book Periodicals Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue Article in a Magazine Anonymous Article in a Newspaper Nonprint Sources Interview Sound Recording Film Electronic Sources MLA Style: Citing Internet Sources APA Style: Citing Internet Sources Online Book World Wide Website Document 0on a Website Article in an Electronic Journal Encyclopedia Article on CD-ROM Encyclopedia Article Online E-Mail, Listserv, and Newsgroup Citations *Student Example: “Why Residential Construction Needs to Get a Conscience,” JULIE ROSS
Chapter 6 Ethical Writing and Plagiarism
Why Ethics Matter What Plagiarism Is The Ethics of Using Sources When Opinions Coincide The Ethics of Giving and Receiving Help with Your Writing Ethical Writing and Good Study Habits Works Cited
PART TWO THE AIMS OF ARGUMENT
Chapter 7 Looking for Some Truth: Arguing to Inquire
Inquiry and Interpretation in Academic Writing The Writing Project: Part 1 Step 1: Choosing a Topic for Inquiry Step 2: Finding an Issue Step 3: Stating Your Initial Opinions Student Sample: Exploratory Essay, Part 1Laurens Initial Opinions Step 4: Exploring an Issue Conversation and Dialogue in Inquiry An Example Conversation “Moving beyond the Blame Game,” JONATHAN ALTER, MODERATOR Analysis of “Moving beyond the Blame Game Step 5: Engaging in a Dialogue about Your Initial Opinions Student Sample: Example Dialogue for AnalysisMatts Initial Opinions Student Sample: Example Dialogue between Matt and Lauren Step 6: Engaging in Dialogue with a Reading Example Dialogue with a Reading “Hollow Claims about Fantasy Violence,” RICHARD RHODES A Dialogue with Rhodes Following Through Another Example of Dialogue with a Reading “Media Literacy,” SISSELA BOK Possibilities for Dialogue with “Media Literacy” Inquiry Again: Digging Deeper When Experts Disagree An Example of Experts Disagreeing “Violence in the Mass Media and Violence in Society: The Link Is Unproven,” JONATHAN L. FREEDMAN “Media Violence: A Demonstrated Public Health Threat to Children,” L. ROWELL HUESMANN AND JESSICA MOISE Commentary on the Experts Disagreement The Writing Project: Part 2 The Writing Project: Part 3 After Drafting Your Essay Student Sample: An Exploratory Essay Inquiry: Summing Up the Aim
Chapter 8 Making Your Case: Arguing to Convince
The Nature of Convincing: Structure and Strategy Case Structure Case Strategy Thinking about Audience Formulating the Thesis Choosing Reasons “Arrested Development: The Conservative Case against Racial Profiling,” JAMES FORMAN, JR. Arranging Reasons Using Evidence Introducing and Concluding the Argument The Introduction The Conclusion Writing a Convincing Argument Preparing a Brief Working toward a Position Student Sample: Working toward a Position Analyzing the Audience Student Sample: Analyzing the Audience Developing a Thesis Student Sample: Developing a Thesis Analyzing the Thesis Student Sample: Analyzing the Thesis Finding Reasons The Audiences Belief System Special Rules or Principles Expert Opinions and Hard Evidence Tradition Comparison The Probable or Likely Cause and Effect Definition Student Sample: Finding Reasons Selecting and Ordering Reasons Student Sample: Selecting and Ordering Reasons Using Evidence What Counts as Evidence? What Kind of Evidence Is Best? How Much Evidence Is Needed? Student Sample: Using Evidence From Brief to Draft The Introduction Student Sample: The Introduction The Body: Presenting Reasons and Evidence Student Sample: Presenting Reasons and Evidence The Conclusion Student Sample: The Conclusion Revising the Draft Reading Your Own Writing Critically Read for Structure Read for Rhetorical Context Inquire into Your Own Writing Getting Feedback from Other Readers Editing and Proofreading Student Sample: An Essay Arguing to Convince, “Who Should Have the Right to Marry?” JUSTIN SPIDEL
Chapter 9 Motivating Action: Arguing to Persuade
When to Convince and When to Persuade: A Matter of Emphasis Analyzing Your readers Who Is the Audience, and How Do They View the Topic? Reading a Persuasive Essay Background “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. Kings Analysis of His Audience: Identification and Overcoming Difference Assumptions Principles Hierarchy of Values Ends and Means Interpretation Implications or Consequences Using the Forms of Appeal The Appeal to Reason The Appeal to Character The Appeal to Emotion The Appeal through Style Drafting a Persuasive Essay Conceiving Need Conceiving a Readership Need and Audience, a Student Example Discovering the Resources of Appeal Student Sample: Baxleys Brief Appealing through Character Appealing to Emotion Strategies of Appeal in “Be a Parent” Appealing through Style *Student Sample: “Be a Parent, Not a Friend,” ELISABETH BAXLEY
Chapter 10 Resolving Conflict: Arguing to Mediate
Mediation and the Other Aims of Argument The Process of Mediation Mediation and Rogerian Argument A Conflict to Mediate Understanding the Positions “Institutionalizing Our Demise: America vs. Multiculturalism,” ROGER KIMBALL “Reinventing ‘America: Call for a New National Identity,” ELIZABETH MARTINEZ Analysis of the Writers Positions Kimballs Position Martinezs Position Locating the Areas of Agreement and Disagreement Differences over Facts Differences over Interests, Values, and Interpretations Is the Difference a Matter of Assumptions? Is the Difference a Matter of Principle? Is the Difference a Matter of Values or Priorities? Is the Difference a Matter of Ends or Means? Is the Difference a Matter of Implications or Consequences? Is the Difference a Matter of Interpretation? Is the Difference a Matter of Personal Background, Basic Human Needs, or Emotions? Finding Creative Solutions: Exploring Common Ground Exploring Common Ground in the Debate over National Identity The Mediatory Essay “Beyond Multiculturalism,” BHARATI MUKHERJEE Analyzing Mukherjees Essay Ethos: Earning the Respect of Both Sides Pathos: Using Emotion to Appeal to Both Sides Logos: Integrating the Values of Both Sides Writing a Mediatory Essay Prewriting Drafting Revising Student Sample: An Essay Arguing to Mediate
PART THREE TWO CASEBOOKS FOR ARGUMENT
Chapter 11 The Consumer Society: The Urge to Splurge
Photo Montage: Black Friday Eve General Introduction: What Is a Consumer Society? Section 1: The Meaning of Spending Overview *Photo: The Mall as Art Museum *VIRGINIA POSTREL, The Aesthetic Imperative *Advertisement: Louis Vuitton *JAMES B. TWITCHELL, Needing the Unnecessary *JULIET SCHOR, When Spending Becomes You *DAVID BROOKS, The Grill-Buying Guy *ALEX KOTLOWITZ, False Connections *STEPHANIE ROSENBLOOM, Zebo: A Sense of Belonging among Belongings Section 2: The Messages of Advertising Overview *JEAN KILBOURNE, Jesus Is a Brand of Jeans *JAMES B. TWITCHELL, How I Bought My Red Miata *Photo: A Super-Thin Model *JEAN KILBOURNE, Cutting Girls Down to Size *Photo: Two Models Who Died from Anorexia *Advertisement: Calvin Klein *ALISSA QUART, X-Large Boys Section 3: The Pursuit of Happiness Overview *DON PECK AND ROSS DOUTHAT, Does Money Buy Happiness? *Advertisement: Clinique “Happy” *JOHN F. SCHUMAKER, The Happiness Conspiracy: What Does It Mean to Be Happy in a Modern Consumer Society? *BARBARA SMALLER, Cartoon *MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, Enjoyment as an Alternative to Materialism *DAVID BROOKS, Shopping for Paradise For Further Reading and Research
Chapter 12 Romantic Relationships: Sex, Love, and Maybe Marriage
General Introduction: Love Today Section 1: Attracting and Choosing a Mate Overview *LAUREN SLATER, Love: The Chemical Reaction SAM GROSS, Cartoon *Helen Fisher, “That First Fine Careless Rapture”: Who We Choose Section 2: Getting Together Overview *ANTONIO CANOVA, Sculpture: Psyche Revived by Eros Kiss ROBERT DOISNEAU, Photograph: Kiss at the Hotel de Ville JACK GRIMES, Hook-Up Culture Two Photographs ETHAN WATTERS, In My Tribe Website: eHarmony *JEAN M. TWENGE, Loneliness and Isolation *NANCY WARTIK, The Perils of Playing House Section 3: Attachment and Marriage Overview *ROBERT W. FIRESTONE, LISA A. FIRESTONE, AND JOYCE CATLETT, What Is Love? BARBARA DAFOE WHITEHEAD AND DAVID POPENOE, Who Wants to Marry a Soul Mate? TOM CHENEY, Cartoon *EVA LAPLANTE, 18,260 Breakfasts KIMBERLY WHITE, Photograph *HELEN FREMONT, First Person Plural JOAN KONNOR, Grown-Up Love For Further Reading and Research
PART FOUR READINGS: ISSUES AND ARGUMENTS
Chapter 13 Global Warming: What Should Be Done?
*GARY STIX, A Climate Repair Manual *SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, 15 Ways to Make a Wedge *AL GORE, Contributions to Global Warming *GREGG EASTERBROOK, Some Convenient Truths *TIM APPENZELLER, The Coal Paradox *AL GORE, Existing Technologies for Reducing CO2 Emissions *AMORY LOVINS, How America Can Free Itself of OilProfitably *MICHELLE NIJHUIS, Selling the Wind *UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS, Ten Personal Solutions *WILLIAM F. RUDDIMAN, Consuming Earths Gifts
Chapter 14 Twenty-Something: Issues Facing Young Adults
*LEV GROSSMAN, Grow Up? Not So Fast: Meet the Twixters *TIME, Survey: Becoming an Adult *Photographs: The High Cost of Housing *TAMARA DRAUT, The Economic Crunch *ANYA KAMENETZ, Waking Up and Taking Charge Cartoons: Views of a Con Game *BILL WATTERSON, Calvin and Hobbes *GARRY TRUDEAU, Doonesbury
Chapter 15 Immigration Revisited: A New Look at a Permanent Issue
Historical Images: Our Contradictory Attitudes toward Immigration *TAMAR JACOBY, The New Immigrants and the Issue of Assimilation *SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, One Nation, Out of Many: Why “Americanization” of Newcomers Is Still Important *ROSS DOUTHAT AND JENNY WOODSON, The Border *JEFF KOTERBA, Cartoon *LINDA CHAVEZ, The Realities of Immigration *DAVID MAUNG, Photograph: The Wall *LESLIE MARMON SILKO, The Border Patrol State
Chapter 16 Countering Terrorism: Where to from Here?
Photo Essay Trends in Global Terrorism: Implications for the United States *JESSICA STERN, The Protean Enemy *BERNARD LEWIS, Freedom and Justice in the Modern Middle East *RICH LOWRY AND DAVID RIVKIN, JR., All the Same Fight *IVAN ELAND, Its What We Do *ROBERT A. PAPE, The Wrong Strategy against the Next Generation *DANIEL BENJAMIN AND STEVEN SIMON, Jihad Wired *MIA BLOOM, Mother. Daughter. Sister. Bomber.
Chapter 17 Genetics and Enhancement: Better Than Human?
*ERIC LANDER, Photo: The Double Helix and Humanity ANNE APPLEBAUM, Stem Cell Stumping *A. BARRINGTON-BROWN, Photograph: Watson and Crick Display Their Discovery JAMES D. WATSON, All for the Good: Why Genetic Engineering Must Soldier On FRANCIS FUKUYAMA, In Defense of Nature, Human and Non-Human *LARRY GEBNICK AND MARK WHEELIS, Cartoon GREGORY STOCK, Choosing Our Genes STEVEN PINKER, Why Designer Babies Wont Happen Soon SONDRA WHEELER, Making Babies? CARL ELLIOTT, The Tyranny of Happiness
Appendix A A Short Guide to Editing and Proofreading Appendix B Fallaciesand Critical Thinking Glossary Credits Index