Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
List of units, prefixes and symbols xvii
1 Using a scientific calculator 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Keys of a scientific calculator 1
References/Further reading 8
2 Units and their conversion 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Length 10
2.3 Mass 11
2.4 Area, volume and capacity 12
2.5 Temperature 14
References/Further reading 15
3 Introduction to physics 17
3.1 Speed and velocity 17
3.2 Acceleration 18
3.3 Mass 18
3.4 Gravitation 18
3.5 Weight 20
3.6 Volume 20
3.7 Density 20
3.8 Specific gravity 22
3.9 Newton’s first law of motion 23
3.10 Newton’s second law of motion 23
3.11 Newton’s third law of motion 24
3.12 Friction 24
3.13 Work 26
3.14 Energy 26
3.14.1 Potential energy 27
3.14.2 Kinetic energy 27
3.15 Power 29
References/Further reading 31
4 Introduction to chemistry 33
4.1 Introduction 33
4.2 Electrovalency and covalency 36
4.2.1 Covalent bond 36
4.3 Elements and compounds 38
4.4 Symbols and formulae 40
4.5 Acids and bases 40
4.5.1 Acids 41
4.5.2 Bases 42
References/Further reading 43
5 Effects of chemicals and atmosphere on materials 45
5.1 Introduction 45
5.2 Oxidation 45
5.2.1 Experiment: To show that oxygen (or air) and water are necessary for the rusting of iron 46
5.3 Electrolysis 47
5.4 Electrolytic corrosion 49
5.4.1 Examples of electrolytic corrosion 50
5.4.2 Protection of steel from corrosion 51
5.5 Applications of electrolysis 52
5.5.1 Electroplating 52
5.5.2 Extraction of aluminium 53
5.6 Acid rain 53
References/Further reading 54
6 Electricity 55
6.1 Introduction 55
6.2 Coulomb’s law 55
6.3 Electric current 56
6.4 Potential difference 57
6.5 Electromotive force (e.m.f.) 57
6.6 Ohm’s law 57
6.7 Electrical resistivity and conductivity 59
6.8 Resistors in series/parallel 60
6.8.1 Resistors in series 60
6.8.2 Resistors in parallel 61
6.9 Transformers 64
6.10 Power generation 66
6.11 Power distribution 67
6.12 Supply to small buildings 68
References/Further reading 70
7 Introduction to construction technology 71
7.1 Introduction 71
7.2 Substructure and superstructure 71
7.2.1 Soil investigation 72
7.3 Foundations 73
7.3.1 Settlement 73
7.4 Forms of construction 75
7.5 The external envelope 77
7.5.1 Ground fl oors 78
7.5.2 Cavity walls 78
7.5.3 Suspended timber upper floors 79
7.5.4 Roofs 80
References/Further reading 82
8 Thermal energy 1 83
8.1 Introduction 83
8.2 Temperature 83
8.2.1 Temperature scales 84
8.3 Units of heat 85
8.4 States of matter 85
8.4.1 Changes in the physical state 85
8.4.2 Experiment: The physical states of water 86
8.5 Expansion and contraction of solids 87
8.5.1 Linear expansion 88
8.5.2 Experiment: Determination of coefficient of linear expansion 89
8.5.3 Practical examples of expansion and contraction 90
8.6 Heat transfer 93
8.6.1 Conduction 93
8.6.2 Experiment: To compare the thermal conductivity of metals 95
8.6.3 Convection 96
8.6.4 Practical examples of convection 96
8.6.5 Radiation 96
References/Further reading 98
9 Thermal energy and humidity 99
9.1 Introduction 99
9.2 Thermal insulation 100
9.2.1 Experiment: To compare the thermal insulation values of expanded polystyrene, vermiculite, mineral wool, glass fibre and cork 101
9.3 Heat transmission 103
9.3.1 Thermal conductivity 103
9.3.2 Thermal resistivity (r) 103
9.3.3 Thermal resistance (R) 103
9.4 Thermal transmittance 105
9.5 Heat loss from buildings 110
9.6 Temperature drop through materials 113
9.7 Humidity 115
9.7.1 Measurement of relative humidity 115
9.8 Condensation 118
9.8.1 The psychrometric chart 119
9.8.2 Prevention of surface condensation 119
9.8.3 Interstitial condensation 122
9.8.4 Prevention of interstitial condensation 127
References/Further reading 130
10 Forces and structures 1 131
10.1 Introduction 131
10.2 Force 132
10.2.1 Internal and external forces 133
10.3 Bending 133
10.3.1 Deflection 134
10.4 Types of loading 135
10.4.1 Dead load 135
10.4.2 Imposed load 136
10.4.3 Wind load 136
10.4.4 Loading from other effects 136
10.4.5 Point load 136
10.4.6 Uniformly distributed load 136
10.4.7 Triangular load 136
10.5 Stress and strain 140
10.5.1 Stress 140
10.5.2 Strain 140
10.6 Elasticity 141
10.6.1 Experiment 1: Proof of Hooke’s law 142
10.6.2 Experiment 2: Proof of Hooke’s law 143
10.6.3 Factor of safety 146
References/Further reading 148
11 Forces and structures 2 149
11.1 Moment of a force 149
11.1.1 Sign convention 150
11.2 Laws of equilibrium 154
11.3 Analysis of beams 154
11.3.1 Beam reactions 154
11.3.2 Shear force (S.F.) 159
11.3.3 Bending moment (B.M.) 165
11.4 Triangle of forces 172
11.4.1 Bow’s notation 176
11.4.2 Frames and roof trusses 178
References/Further reading 186
12 Fluid mechanics 187
12.1 Introduction 187
12.2 Pressure of fluids at rest 187
12.2.1 Why do the liquids flow? 190
12.2.2 Centre of pressure 191
12.3 The flow of a fluid 193
12.3.1 Flow rate 194
12.3.2 Bernoulli’s theorem 195
12.3.3 The venturimeter 198
12.3.4 Flow in pipes: energy loss 200
12.4 Flow in open channels 200
References/Further reading 205
13 Sound 207
13.1 Introduction 207
13.2 Frequency, wavelength and velocity of sound 208
13.2.1 Frequency (f) 208
13.2.2 Wavelength (λ) 208
13.2.3 Velocity (v) 208
13.3 Measurement of sound 210
13.3.1 Threshold values of sound 211
13.3.2 The decibel scale 211
13.4 Addition of sound levels 214
13.4.1 Approximate addition of sound levels 214
13.5 Transmission of sound in buildings 216
13.5.1 Noise 217
13.5.2 Requirements of sound insulation 217
13.5.3 Sound-insulation techniques 218
13.5.4 Noise in a workplace 221
13.5.5 Measurement of sound insulation 222
13.6 Sound absorption 223
13.6.1 Reverberation 224
13.6.2 Reverberation time 225
13.6.3 Types of sound absorbers 228
13.7 Sound level meter 230
References/Further reading 231
14 Light 233
14.1 Introduction 233
14.2 Additive and subtractive colours 234
14.3 Units for measuring light 235
14.3.1 Angular measure 235
14.3.2 Solid angle 236
14.3.3 Luminous intensity (I) 237
14.3.4 Luminous fl ux (F) 237
14.3.5 Illuminance (E) 237
14.3.6 Luminance 238
14.4 Inverse square law of illuminance 238
14.5 Lambert’s cosine law of illuminance 240
14.6 Lamps and luminaires 242
14.7 Design of interior lighting 244
14.7.1 Light output ratio 245
14.7.2 Direct ratio 246
14.7.3 Room index 246
14.7.4 Reflection of light 246
14.7.5 Level of illuminance 247
14.7.6 Utilisation factor (UF) 247
14.7.7 Maintenance factor (MF) 247
14.7.8 Lumen design method 252
14.7.9 SHR 252
14.8 Light meter 257
14.9 Daylighting 257
14.9.1 Uniform sky 257
14.9.2 CIE standard overcast sky 257
14.9.3 Daylight factor 258
14.9.4 Components of daylight factor 258
14.9.5 Prediction of daylight factors 260
References/Further reading 262
15 Human comfort 263
15.1 Introduction 263
15.2 Temperature 263
15.2.1 Air temperature 264
15.2.2 Mean radiant temperature 264
15.2.3 Environmental temperature 265
15.2.4 Dry resultant temperature 265
15.2.5 Activity 266
15.2.6 Clothing 266
15.3 Air movement 267
15.4 Humidity 267
15.5 Ventilation 267
15.6 Noise 268
15.7 Lighting 269
References/Further reading 270
16 Construction materials 271
16.1 Bricks 271
16.1.1 Clay bricks 271
16.1.2 Size 271
16.1.3 Classifi cation 272
16.1.4 Manufacture 272
16.1.5 Properties 272
16.1.6 Deterioration of brickwork 274
16.1.7 Environmental implications 276
16.1.8 COSHH 276
16.2 Aerated concrete blocks 276
16.2.1 Manufacture 276
16.2.2 Sizes 277
16.2.3 Properties 277
16.2.4 Environmental implications 278
16.3 Cement 278
16.3.1 Raw materials 278
16.3.2 Manufacture 279
16.3.3 Setting and hardening of cement 279
16.3.4 Constituents of portland cement 280
16.3.5 Types of cement 280
16.3.6 Compressive strength 282
16.3.7 Environmental implications 282
16.3.8 COSHH 283
16.4 Concrete 283
16.4.1 Raw materials 283
16.4.2 Manufacture of concrete 283
16.4.3 Concrete mix 284
16.4.4 Properties of fresh concrete 285
16.4.5 Properties of hardened concrete 286
16.4.6 Deterioration of concrete 287
16.4.7 Environmental implications 289
16.5 Metals 289
16.5.1 Ferrous metals 289
16.5.2 Raw materials 290
16.5.3 Manufacturing process 290
16.5.4 Iron and its alloys 291
16.5.5 Properties of steel 291
16.5.6 Corrosion of iron/steel 293
16.5.7 Environmental implications 293
16.5.8 Non-ferrous metal: aluminium 294
16.5.9 Raw materials 294
16.5.10 Properties 294
16.5.11 Environmental implications 295
16.6 Timber 295
16.6.1 Seasoning 296
16.6.2 Properties 297
16.6.3 Deterioration 298
16.6.4 Preservation 300
16.6.5 Environmental implications 300
16.7 Plastics 300
16.7.1 Raw materials and manufacture 301
16.7.2 Classifi cation 301
16.7.3 Properties and uses 302
References/Further reading 303
17 Assignments 305
17.1 Assignments for Level 2 courses 305
17.1.1 Assignment No. 1 305
17.1.2 Assignment No. 2 305
17.1.3 Assignment No. 3 306
17.2 Assignments for Level 3/4 courses 306
17.2.1 Assignment No. 1 306
17.2.2 Assignment No. 2 308
17.2.3 Assignment No. 3 308
Appendix 1: Formulae for Example 9.2 311
Appendix 2: Solutions for Example 13.10 313
Appendix 3: Answers to Exercises 315
Index 327
A colour plate section can be found between pages 130 and 131
The book’s companion website is at www.wiley.com/go/virdiconstructionscience
You will fi nd here freely downloadable support material:
fully worked solutions to the exercises at the end of chapters
model answers for the assignment tasks set in Chapter 17
explanation of settlement and consolidation in structures
details on the design of building foundations
daylight calculations
a task + solution on the design of timber joists
PowerPoint slides for lectures on: Hooke’s Law; Forces & Their Effects; Temperature & Heat Loss