Brief Contents
PART ONE TECHNICAL ISSUES
CHAPTER 1 Fundamental Issues in Measurement 1
CHAPTER 2 Measurement and Numbers 22
CHAPTER 3 Giving Meaning to Scores 58
CHAPTER 4 Qualities Desired in Any Measurement Procedure: Reliability 109
CHAPTER 5 Qualities Desired in Any Measurement Procedure: Validity 145
CHAPTER 6 Practical Issues Related to Testing 197
PART TWO TESTING AND MEASUREMENT DEVICES
CHAPTER 7 Assessment and Educational Decisions 218
CHAPTER 8 Aptitude Tests 238
CHAPTER 9 Standardized Achievement Tests 288
CHAPTER 10 Performance and Product Evaluation 307
CHAPTER 11 Interests, Personality, and Adjustment 326
CHAPTER 12 Attitudes and Rating Scales 363
PART THREE SPECIAL TOPICS IN TESTING
CHAPTER 13 Assessment of Children with Disabilities 399
CHAPTER 14 Ethics and Issues in Assessment 416
CHAPTER 15 Principles of Test Development 439
Appendix: Percent of Cases Falling Below Selected Values on the Normal Curve 481
References 483
Author Index 495
Subject Index 499
Contents
PART ONE
TECHNICAL ISSUES
CHAPTER 1
Fundamental Issues in Measurement 1
Introduction 1
A Little History 2
The Early Period 3
The Boom Period 4
The First Period of Criticism 5
The Battery Period 5
The Second Period of Criticism 6
The Age of Accountability 6
Types of Decisions 7
Measurement and Decisions 8
The Role of Values in Decision Making 8
Steps in the Measurement Process 9
Identifying and Defining the Attribute 10
Determining Operations to Isolate and Display the Attribute 11
Quantifying the Attribute 13
Problems Relating to the Measurement Process 14
Some Current Issues in Measurement 15
Testing Minority Individuals 16
Invasion of Privacy 17
The Use of Normative Comparisons 17
Other Factors That Influence Scores 18
Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers 18
SUMMARY 19
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 20
SUGGESTED READINGS 21
CHAPTER 2
Measurement and Numbers 22
Questions to Ask About Test Scores 22
Scales of Measurement 25
Preparation of a Frequency Distribution 27
Grouped Frequency Distributions 28
Cumulative Frequency Distributions 33
Graphic Representation 34
Measures of Central Tendency 36
The Mode 37
The Median 37
Percentiles 39
The Arithmetic Mean 40
Central Tendency and the Shape of the Distribution 42
Measures of Variability 43
The Range 44
The Semi-Interquartile Range 44
The Standard Deviation 45
Interpreting the Standard Deviation 47
Interpreting the Score of an Individual 49
Measures of Relationship 50
SUMMARY 55
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 56
SUGGESTED READINGS 57
CHAPTER 3
Giving Meaning to Scores 58
The Nature of a Score 58
Frames of Reference 59
Domains in Criterion- and Norm-Referenced Tests 61
Criterion-Referenced Evaluation 62 Norm-Referenced Evaluation 64
Grade Norms 65
Age Norms 69
Percentile Norms 70
Standard Score Norms 76
Normalizing Transformations 79
Stanines 82
Interchangeability of Different Types of Norms 84
Quotients 87
Profiles 88
Criterion-Referenced Reports 92
Norms for School Averages 97
Cautions in Using Norms 98
A Third Frame of Reference: Item Response Theory 100
SUMMARY 106
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 107
SUGGESTED READINGS 108
CHAPTER 4
Qualities Desired in Any Measurement Procedure: Reliability 109
Introduction 109
Reliability as Consistency 110
Sources of Inconsistency 111
Two Ways to Express Reliability 112
Standard Error of Measurement 112
Reliability Coefficient 112
Ways to Assess Reliability 113
Retesting with the Same Test 114
Testing with Parallel Forms 115
Single-Administration Methods 116
Comparison of Methods 121
Interpretation of Reliability Data 122
Standard Error of Measurement 122
Reliability Coefficient 124
Factors Affecting Reliability 125
Variability of the Group 125
Level of the Group on the Trait 125
Length of the Test 127
Operations Used for Estimating Reliability 128
Practical versus Theoretical Reliability 128
Minimum Level of Reliability 130
Reliability of Difference Scores 131
Effects of Unreliability on Correlation Between Variables 134
Reliability of Criterion-Referenced Tests 135
Reliability of Computer Adaptive Tests 139
SUMMARY 143
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 143
SUGGESTED READINGS 144
CHAPTER 5
Qualities Desired in Any Measurement Procedure: Validity 145
Introduction 145
Content-Related Evidence of Validity 147
Preparing a Test Blueprint 147
Content Validity for Measures of Aptitude and Typical Performance 156
Criterion-Related Evidence of Validity 157
Face Validity 157
Empirical Validity 157
Construct-Related Evidence of Validity 174
Predictions About Correlations 176
Predictions About Group Differences 178
Predictions About Responses to Experimental Treatments or Interventions 178
The Unified View of Validity 179
Validation as a Scientific Enterprise 179
Construct Validity as the Whole of Validity 181
Messick’s Unified Theory of Validity 185
Beyond Messick: Refinements and Shifts in Focus 189
Validity Theory and Test Bias 190
Overlap of Reliability and Validity 191
Validity for Criterion-Referenced Tests 192
Meta-Analysis and Validity Generalization 193
SUMMARY 194
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 194
SUGGESTED READINGS 195
CHAPTER 6
Practical Issues Related to Testing 197
Factors Making for Practicality in Routine Test Use 197
Economy 197
Features Facilitating Test Administration 200
Features Facilitating Interpretation and Use of Scores 201
E-Testing 203
Guide for Evaluating a Test 204
General Identifying Information 204
Information About the Test 205
Aids to Interpreting Test Results 205
Validity 205
Reliability 206
Administration and Scoring 206
Scales and Norms 207
Getting Information About Specific Tests 207
What Tests Exist? 207
Exactly What Is Test X Like? 209
What Do Critics Think of Test X? 211
What Research Has Been Conducted on Test X? 212
SUMMARY 214
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 214
SOURCES OF TEST INFORMATION 215
PART TWO
TESTING AND MEASUREMENT DEVICES
CHAPTER 7
Assessment and Educational Decisions 218
Introduction 218
Values and Decisions 219
Placement Decisions 219
Issues Related to Mainstreaming 220
How Placement Decisions Are Made 221
Classroom Instructional Decisions 222
The Use of Objectives 223
Types of Assessment Instruments 223
Day-by-Day Instructional Decisions 225
Reporting Academic Progress 227
Performance in Relation to Perfection 228
Performance in Relation to Par 228
Performance in Relation to Potential 229
Assigning Grades 230
Importance of Grades 230
Planning Educational Futures 231
Selection Decisions 232
Curricular Decisions 233
Public and Political Decisions 234
SUMMARY 235
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 236
SUGGESTED READINGS 236
CHAPTER 8
Aptitude Tests 238
Introduction 238
Theories of Cognitive Abilities 239
Binet’s Theory 239
Spearman’s g 240
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities 240
Theories of Jensen and Wechsler 241
Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc Theory 243
Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory 244
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory 244
Das-Naglieri PASS Model 245
Gardner’s Proposal 246
Individual General-Ability Tests 246
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition 247
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition 253
Wechsler Scales 255
Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery—Third Edition 259
Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System 259
Nonverbal Measures of Cognitive Ability 262
Abbreviated Individual Tests 265
Group General-Ability Tests 266
Tests of Multiple Abilities 273
Differential Aptitude Test Battery 273
General Aptitude Test Battery 276
Role of General Cognitive Ability: The Bell Curve 280
SUMMARY 284
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 285
SUGGESTED READINGS 286
CHAPTER 9
Standardized Achievement Tests 288
Introduction 288
Distinctive Features of Standardized Achievement Tests 288
Uses of Standardized Achievement Tests 290
Types of Standardized Achievement Tests 290
Group Standardized Achievement Tests 291
Individually Administered Achievement Tests 294
Secondary-School and College-Level Achievement Tests 295
Problems with Statewide Administration of Achievement Test Batteries: The “Lake Wobegon Effect” 298
Interpreting Standardized Achievement Test Batteries 300
Diagnostic Achievement Tests 302
Criterion-Referenced Standardized Achievement Tests 303
Examples of Criterion-Referenced Standardized Achievement Tests 304
Problems with Criterion-Referenced Standardized Achievement Tests 304
SUMMARY 305
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 305
SUGGESTED READINGS 306
CHAPTER 10
Performance and Product Evaluation 307
Introduction 307
Artificiality of Conventional Cognitive Tests 307
Conventional Cognitive Tests 308
Assessing Products 309
Applying Performance and Product Evaluation to Cognitive Tasks 310
Scoring Performance Tests 310
Assessing Processes 313
Using Checklists 313
Using Rating Scales 314
Assessing Products and Performances 315
Advantages of Multiple Observers 316
Reliability or Agreement for Multiple Observers 316
Systematic Observation 318
Conducting the Systematic Observation 319
Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic Observation 322
SUMMARY 324
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 325
SUGGESTED READINGS 325
CHAPTER 11
Interests, Personality, and Adjustment 326
Introduction 326
Interest Measurement 327
Strong Interest Inventory 327
Career Assessment Inventory 336
Self-Directed Search 336
Personality and Adjustment Assessment 337
Dynamic Approaches 338
Trait Approaches 341
Humanistic Approaches: Personality as Self-Perception 351
Behavioral Approaches 352
Problems with Personality and Interest Measures 358
Computerized Scoring and Interpretation 360
Advantages 360
Disadvantages 360
SUMMARY 361
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 361
SUGGESTED READINGS 362
CHAPTER 12
Attitudes and Rating Scales 363
Introduction 363
Learning About Personality from Others 364
Letters of Recommendation 364
Rating Scales 366
Problems in Obtaining Sound Ratings 367
Improving the Effectiveness of Ratings 374
Improving the Accuracy of Ratings 379
Rating Procedures for Special Situations 383
Measuring Attitudes 386
Summative Attitude Scales 388
Single-Item Scales 389
Example of an Attitude Rating Scale 390
Alternative Formats 393
SUMMARY 395
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 396
SUGGESTED READINGS 397
PART THREE
SPECIAL TOPICS IN TESTING
CHAPTER 13
Assessment of Children with Disabilities 399
Introduction 399
Summary of Major Legislation and Litigation 401
Influential Legislation 401
Influential Litigation 402
Assessment Processes 403
Referral to Placement Sequence 403
Major Domains of Involvement 405
Intelligence and Cognitive Functioning 405
Adaptive Behavior and Self-Help Skills 406
Behavioral and Socioemotional Functioning 407
Neuropsychological Functioning 408
Traditional Academic Functioning 409
Reading, Math, and Written-Language Assessment 409
Curriculum-Based Assessment 410
Ecological Assessment 411
Current and Emerging Issues 412
Minimum Competency Testing 412
Outcomes-Based Assessment 414
SUMMARY 414
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 415
SUGGESTED READINGS 415
CHAPTER 14
Ethics and Issues in Assessment 416
Introduction 416
Professional Training and Competence 417
Professional Training 417
Professional Competence 419
Validity of Clinical Opinion 420
Professional and Scientific Responsibility 421
Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing 421
Respect for the Rights and Dignity of Others 423
Privacy and Confidentiality 423
Autonomy and Self-Determination 425
Beneficence 427
Social Responsibility 427
Distributive Justice 428
Social Benefits of Testing 428
Maximizing the Positive 430
Controversial Issues in Testing 432
Test Bias 432
Truth in Testing 434
High-Stakes Testing 435
Internet-Based Psychological Testing 436
SUMMARY 437
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 438
SUGGESTED READINGS 438
CHAPTER 15
Principles of Test Development 439
Introduction 439
Suggestions for Writing Objective Test Items 440
General Principles for Objective Items 440
Writing True—False Items 443
Writing Multiple-Choice Items 448
Writing Matching Items 459
Preparing the Objective Test for Use 462
Scoring the Objective Test 465
Correction for Guessing 465
Using Item Analysis to Improve Objective Tests 468
Simplified Procedures for Conducting Item Analyses 468
More Formal Item Analysis Procedures 471
Writing Essay Test Items 473
Writing Essay Questions 474
Preparing the Essay Test 476
Scoring Essay Items 477
SUMMARY 478
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 479
SUGGESTED READINGS 480
Appendix: Percent of Cases Falling Below Selected Values on the Normal Curve 481
References 483
Author Index 495
Subject Index 499