Now in a new edition, this book expands on previous editions on the study of personality and neuroscience. It draws on research on the biological foundations of personality and trait-based research including investigations of neural mechanisms in defensive information processing as well as brain systems critical to self-concept. The text introduces questions of personality-and-brain along with biological foundations. It explores each of various theoretical issues at a new level of investigation, that of brain research to provide a more up-to-date look at the field.
Now in a new edition, this book expands on previous editions on the study of personality and neuroscience. It draws on research on the biological foundations of personality and trait-based research including investigations of neural mechanisms in defensive information processing as well as brain systems critical to self-concept. The text introduces questions of personality-and-brain along with biological foundations. It explores each of various theoretical issues at a new level of investigation, that of brain research to provide a more up-to-date look at the field.
PREFACE, V
CHAPTER 1 PERSONALITY THEORY: FROM EVERYDAY OBSERVATIONS TO SYSTEMATIC THEORIES, 1
QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 3
FIVE GOALS FOR THE PERSONALITY THEORIST, 4
1. Observation That Is Scientific, 4
2. Theory That Is Systematic, 5
3. Theory That Is Testable, 5
4. Theory That Is Comprehensive, 5
5. Applications: From Theory to Practice, 6
WHY STUDY PERSONALITY? 6
DEFINING PERSONALITY, 7
QUESTIONS ABOUT PERSONS: WHAT, HOW, AND WHY, 9
ANSWERING QUESTIONS ABOUT PERSONS SCIENTIFICALLY: UNDERSTANDING STRUCTURES, PROCESSES, DEVELOPMENT, AND THERAPEUTIC CHANGE, 9
Structure, 9
Units of Analysis, 10
Hierarchy, 12
Process, 12
Growth and Development, 13
Genetic Determinants , 14
Environmental Determinants , 16
Culture, 18
Social Class, 18
Family, 19
Peers, 19
Psychopathology and Behavior Change, 19
IMPORTANT ISSUES IN PERSONALITY THEORY, 20
Philosophical View of the Person, 20
Internal and External Determinants of Behavior, 21
Consistency across Situations and over Time, 21
The Unity of Experience and Action and the Concept of Self, 23
Varying States of Awareness and the Concept of the Unconscious, 24
The Influence of the Past, Present, and Future on Behavior, 24
Can We Have a Science of Personality? What Kind of a Science Can It Be? 25
EVALUATING PERSONALITY THEORIES, 26
THE PERSONALITY THEORIES: AN INTRODUCTION, 27
The Challenge of Constructing a Personality Theory, 27
The Personality Theories: A Preliminary Sketch, 28
On the Existence of Multiple Theories: Theories As Toolkits, 30
MAJOR CONCEPTS, 31
REVIEW, 32
CHAPTER 2 THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF PEOPLE, 33
QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 34
THE DATA OF PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY, 35
Lots of Data, 36
How Do Data from Different Sources Relate to One Another? 37
Fixed Versus Flexible Measures, 39
Personality and Brain Data, 40
Personality Theory and Assessment , 41
GOALS OF RESEARCH: RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, ETHICAL BEHAVIOR, 43
Reliability , 43
Validity, 43
The Ethics of Research and Public Policy, 45
THREE GENERAL STRATEGIES TO RESEARCH, 46
Case Studies, 46
Case Studies: An Example, 47
Correlational Studies, 49
Correlational Research: An Example, 50
Experiments, 52
Experimental Research: An Example, 54
Evaluating Alternative Research Approaches, 57
Case Studies and Clinical Research: Strengths and Limitations, 57
The Use of Verbal Reports, 58
Correlational Research and Questionnaires: Strengths and Limitations, 60
Laboratory, Experimental Research: Strengths and Limitations, 61
Summary of Strengths and Limitations, 63
PERSONALITY THEORY AND PERSONALITY RESEARCH, 64
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND THE CASE OF JIM, 65
Autobiographical Sketch of Jim, 66
MAJOR CONCEPTS, 66
REVIEW, 67
CHAPTER 3 A PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY: FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY, 69
QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 70
SIGMUND FREUD (1856–1939): A VIEW OF THE THEORIST, 70
FREUD’S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 72
The Mind As an Energy System, 73
The Individual in Society, 76
FREUD’S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 76
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY, 77
Structure, 77
Levels of Consciousness and the Concept of the Unconscious, 78
Dreams, 79
The Motivated Unconscious, 80
Relevant Psychoanalytic Research, 80
Current Status of the Concept of the Unconscious, 83
The Psychoanalytic Unconscious and the Cognitive Unconscious, 85
Id, Ego, and Superego, 87
Process, 90
Life and Death Instincts, 90
The Dynamics of Functioning, 91
Anxiety, Mechanisms of Defense, and Contemporary Research on Defensive Processes, 92
Denial, 93
Projection, 94
Isolation, Reaction Formation, and Sublimation, 95
Repression, 96
Growth and Development, 99
The Development of the Instincts and Stages of Development, 99
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development, 104
The Importance of Early Experience, 107
The Development of Thinking Processes, 109
MAJOR CONCEPTS, 111
REVIEW, 112
CHAPTER 4 FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: APPLICATIONS, RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, AND CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH, 113
QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 114
PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT: PROJECTIVE TESTS, 115
The Logic of Projective Tests, 115
The Rorschach Inkblot Test, 116
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 119
Projective Tests: Do They Work? 120
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY, 122
Personality Types, 122
Conflict and Defense, 124
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGE, 125
Insights into the Unconscious: Free Association and Dream Interpretation, 126
The Therapeutic Process: Transference, 126
A Case Example: Little Hans, 128
THE CASE OF JIM, 132
Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Data, 132
Comments on the Data, 134
RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, 135
Two Early Challenges to Freud: Adler and Jung, 135
Alfred Adler (1870–1937), 135
Carl G. Jung (1875–1961), 137
The Cultural and Interpersonal Emphasis: Horney and Sullivan, 141
Reinterpreting Motivational Forces, 141
Karen Horney (1885–1952), 141
Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949), 143
Object Relations, Self Psychology, and Attachment Theory, 144
Object Relations Theory, 144
Self Psychology and Narcissism, 145
Attachment Theory, 147
Attachment Styles in Adulthood, 150
Attachment Types or Dimensions? 153
CRITICAL EVALUATION, 155
Scientific Observation: The Database, 156
Theory: Systematic? 156
Theory: Testable? 157
Theory: Comprehensive? 157
Applications , 158
Major Contributions and Summary, 158
MAJOR CONCEPTS, 160
REVIEW, 160
CHAPTER 5 A PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY: CARL ROGERS’S PERSON-CENTERED THEORY OF PERSONALITY, 163
QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 164
CARL R. ROGERS (1902–1987): A VIEW OF THE THEORIST, 165
ROGERS’S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 168
The Subjectivity of Experience, 168
Feelings of Authenticity, 169
The Positivity of Human Motivation, 169
A Phenomenological Perspective, 170
ROGERS’S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 170
THE PERSONALITY THEORY OF CARL ROGERS, 171
Structure, 171
The Self, 171
Confirming Pages, 172
Measuring Self-Concept, 173
The Q-Sort Technique, 173
The Semantic Differential, 174
Process, 176
Self-Actualization, 177
Self-Consistency and Congruence, 178
States of Incongruence and Defensive Processes, 179
Research on Self-Consistency and Congruence, 179
The Need for Positive Regard, 182
Growth and Development, 184
Research on Parent–Child Relationships, 185
Social Relations, Self-Actualization, and Well-Being Later in Life, 188
MAJOR CONCEPTS, 189
REVIEW, 190
CHAPTER 6 ROGERS’S PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY: APPLICATIONS, RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, AND CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH, 191
QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 193
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS, 193
Psychopathology, 193
Self-Experience Discrepancy, 193
Psychological Change, 194
Therapeutic Conditions Necessary for Change, 195
Outcomes of Client-Centered Therapy, 198
Presence, 200
A CASE EXAMPLE: MRS. OAK, 201
THE CASE OF JIM, 203
Semantic Differential: Phenomenological Theory, 203
Comments on the Data, 204
RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, 205
The Human Potential Movement, 205
Abraham H. Maslow (1908–1970), 206
The Positive Psychology Movement, 207
Classifying Human Strengths, 208
The Virtues of Positive Emotions, 209
Flow, 209
Existentialism , 210
The Existentialism of Sartre: Consciousness, Nothingness, Freedom, and Responsibility, 211
Contemporary Experimental Existentialism, 213
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THEORY AND RESEARCH, 215
Discrepancies among Parts of the Self, 215
Fluctuations in Self-Esteem and Contingencies of Worth, 216
Authenticity and Internally Motivated Goals, 217
Cross-Cultural Research on the Self, 219
Cultural Differences in the Self and the Need for Positive Self-Regard, 220
CRITICAL EVALUATION, 223
Scientific Observation: The Database, 223
Theory: Systematic? 224
Theory: Testable? 224
Theory: Comprehensive? 225
Applications, 226
Major Contributions and Summary, 226
MAJOR CONCEPTS, 227
REVIEW, 228
CHAPTER 7 TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY: ALLPORT, EYSENCK, AND CATTELL, 229
QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 230
A VIEW OF THE TRAIT THEORISTS, 231
TRAIT THEORY’S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 232
The Trait Concept, 232
TRAIT THEORY’S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 233
Scientific Functions Served by Trait Constructs, 233
Description, 233
Prediction, 234
Explanation, 234
TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY: BASIC PERSPECTIVES SHARED BY TRAIT THEORISTS, 235
THE TRAIT THEORY OF GORDON W. ALLPORT (1897–1967), 236
Traits: Personality Structure in Allport’s Theory, 237
Functional Autonomy, 238
Idiographic Research, 239
Comment on Allport, 240
IDENTIFYING PRIMARY TRAIT