This text combines new and time-tested approaches to working with struggling readers of all ages. Includes practical instructional strategies, assessment tools, discussion of the research, and an informal reading inventory that students can use immediately. Pre-service teachers
Contents
Preface
iii
1 Overview of Reading and Reading Problems 1
Introduction 2
Reading Problems: A National Dilemma 3
National Reading Levels 4
Reading Needs in Today’s World 5
Need for Early Identification and Instruction 5
Where Do Children with Reading Problems Receive Help? 7
Different Models of Reading Assessment and Instruction 7
Response-to-Intervention 7
The Components Model of Reading 10
Differentiated Instruction 11
How Does a Student Construct Meaning in Reading? 13
Contribution of the Reader 14
Contribution of the Written Material 16
Contribution of the Reading Situation 16
Key Elements of Teaching Reading 17
Early Literacy 17
Word Recognition 17
Reading Fluency 17
Reading Comprehension 17
Reading Vocabulary 18
Reading-Writing Connection 19
Enjoyment and Appreciation 19
The Website for This Book 19
Summary 19
References 20
2 Factors Associated with Reading Disability 22
Introduction 23
Neurological and Cognitive Factors 23
iii
iv
CONTENTS
Environmental Factors 25
The Home Environment 25
The School Environment 26
The Social Environment 27
Cultural Environment 28
Assessing Environmental Factors 29
Emotional Factors 29
Emotional Problems 31
Assessing Emotional and Behavioral Factors 31
Intelligence and Intellectual Factors 31
Definitions of Intelligence 31
Cultural Bias in the Measurement of Intelligence 33
Using Intelligence Tests to Determine the Existence of a Reading
Disability 33
Concerns about Using Intelligence Tests to Determine a Reading
Disability 34
Language Factors 36
Oral and Written Language 36
Receptive and Expressive Language 37
Systems of Oral Language 37
Speech Problems and Language Disorders 38
English Language Learners 40
Assessing Language Development 40
Physical Factors 40
Hearing Impairment 40
Visual Impairment 41
Gender Differences 43
Other Physical Problems 43
Summary 44
References 45
3 Obtaining Background Information 49
Introduction 50
Information about the Environment 50
Home Environment 51
School Environment 53
Social and Cultural Environments 57
Contents
v
Information about the Individual 58
Emotional Information 58
Information about Potential (Intelligence) 60
Physical Information 60
Information about Language Development 62
Methods of Collecting Information 63
Interview and Questionnaire 64
Informal Talks 65
School Records and Materials 66
Observation during Reading Lessons 66
Summary 67
References 67
4 Assessing Reading: Formal Measures 70
Introduction 71
Using Both Formal and Informal Assessment 71
Norm-Referenced Tests 72
Criterion-Referenced Tests 73
Bias in Testing 73
Ethical Considerations 73
Scores on Norm-Referenced Tests 74
Standardization, Validity, and Reliability 75
Tests of General Reading Assessment 76
Group Survey Tests 77
Individual Survey Tests 79
Normed Oral Reading Tests 82
Diagnostic Reading Tests 83
Diagnostic Reading Batteries 83
Diagnostic Tests of Specific Areas 86
Measuring Intelligence 87
Using Intelligence Test Information in Reading Assessment 88
Intelligence Tests that Should Be Administered by Psychologists 89
Intelligence Tests that Can Be Administered by Teachers and Reading
Specialists 92
Interpreting Intelligence Test Scores 94
Summary 95
References 95
vi
CONTENTS
5
Using an Informal Reading Inventory for
Assessment 100
Introduction 101
General Diagnostic Questions: An Overview 101
Does the Student Have a Reading Problem and How Severe Is It? 101
What Is the General Area of the Reading Problem? 102
Overview of Informal Assessment Measures 104
Informal Reading Inventory 104
Obtaining Answers to General Diagnostic Questions 105
Administering and Scoring the Informal Reading Inventory 106
Interpreting the Score of the IRI 118
Special Issues and Options in Using IRIs 125
Combining IRI Assessment with Think-Alouds 128
Summary 131
References 132
6
Providing Instructional Support for Struggling
Readers 134
Introduction 135
Effective Instruction for Struggling Readers 135
Early Intervention Programs 136
Reading Recovery 136
Early Steps 137
Reading Rescue 137
Howard Street Tutoring Model 138
Book Buddies 138
The Boulder Project 138
Early Intervention in Reading 139
First-Grade Group Intervention 139
Reading Club 139
The Anna Plan 140
Literacy Booster Groups 140
Cross-Age Tutoring 140
Interventions for Older Students 141
Third-Grade Intervention 141
The Memphis Comprehension Framework 141
Contents vii
Project Success 142
Sixth-Grade Reading Class 142
Intervention Within the Classroom 142
Cross-Age Tutoring 143
Literacy Tutoring for Adolescents 143
Readers’ Workshop 144
Total School or Classroom Interventions 144
Success for All 144
Four-Blocks Literacy Model 145
Fluency-Oriented Reading Program 146
Guidelines for Teaching Students Struggling with Literacy 146
Emphasize Reading 146
Teach Students the Strategies that Good Readers Use 150
Make Assessment an Ongoing Component of Instruction 152
Provide a Balanced Instructional Framework 154
Provide a Consistent Instructional Structure and Use Time Effectively 155
Provide Time for Word Study and Fluency Development 155
Include Writing as Part of the Lesson Structure 156
Keep the Size of the Group as Small as Possible 156
Coordinate Intervention Instruction and Classroom Instruction 157
Application of Common Intervention Elements to Program Design 158
Summary 159
References 160
7 Early Literacy 166
Introduction 167
Early Literacy Concepts 167
Oral Language Development 168
Listening Comprehension 169
Print Knowledge 170
Environmental Print 171
Alphabet Knowledge 172
Phonemic Awareness 173
Short-Term Phonological Memory 174
Rapid Naming 176
Visual Memory 176
Visual Perceptual Skills 177
Strategies to Develop Early Literacy Concepts 177
Oral Language Development 178
Print Knowledge 181
Alphabet Knowledge and Phonemic Awareness 183
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CONTENTS
Beginning Reading Vocabulary 186
Summary 186
References 187
8 Improving Word Recognition Accuracy 190
Introduction 191
Stages of Word Recognition Development 191
Strategies for Identifying Words 192
Assessing Phonics Strategies 193
Miscue Analysis 193
Tests of Phonics Patterns 193
Teaching Phonics Strategies 195
Letter-Sound Relationships 195
Organizing Phonics Instruction 196
Decoding Through Analogy 198
Combining Phonics and Meaning 200
Making Students Aware of Their Strategies 201
Dealing with Exceptions 201
Ideas for Practicing Phonics 202
Teaching Multisyllable Words 203
Assessing Structural Analysis Strategies 206
Teaching Structural Analysis Strategies 207
Assessing Context Strategies 208
Miscue Analysis 209
Comparison of Words Recognized in Lists and Passages 209
Teaching Context Strategies 209
Encouraging Students to Monitor for Meaning 210
Using Cloze 210
Summary 211
References 211
Contents
ix
9 Improving Reading Fluency 214
Introduction 215
Role of Fluency in the Reading Process 215
Assessing Word Recognition Fluency 216
Listening to Students Read Orally 216
Determining Reading Rate 217
Timed Administration of Word Lists 218
Strategies for Developing Fluency in Context 219
Promoting Wide Reading of Easy Text 219
Using Patterned Books 221
Assisted Oral Reading 223
Repeated Readings 225
Performance Reading 227
The Language Experience Approach 228
Making Oral and Silent Reading Effective 229
Fluency Development Lesson 231
Strategies for Developing Sight Words in Isolation 231
Choosing Words for Instructional Focus 232
Guidelines for Teaching Sight Words 232
Strategies for Focusing on Words 233
Mastering Function Words 236
Dealing with Reversals 237
The Curious George Strategy 237
Summary 239
References 240
10
Improving Vocabulary Development and Listening
Comprehension 243
Introduction 244
Importance of Language to Reading 244
Causes of Problems with Language 244
Language Disability and Delay 244
Lack of Reading 245
Lack of a Rich Language Environment 245
x
CONTENTS
Assessing Language Abilities 245
Informal Measures 245
Formal Measures 248
Conditions that Foster Language Learning 248
Exposure to Rich Language 249
Active Participation 250
Planning for Vocabulary and Language Learning 250
Making Connections 250
Strategies for Fostering